Tartuffe

Tartuffe is a play by Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, known by his stage name Molière. He is regarded as one of the greatest writers not only in the French language but also in world literature. The play Tartuffe was first performed in 1664.

Two important characters of the play are Orgon, the head of the house and Tartuffe, his houseguest. Other important characters are Elmire, Orgon's wife, Valère, a young man who is interested in Orgon's daughter Mariane, and Madame Pernelle, the mother of Orgon. Other characters are Damis, Tartuffe's son and Dorine, the family maid.

Orgon and his mother are deceived by Tartuffe, a hypocrite who does not fool the rest of the family. They are alarmed when Orgon announces that Tartuffe will marry Mariane, though she is already engaged to Valère. Mariane is very upset, but she realizes that Tartuffe has great influence over her father.

In an effort to show Orgon how bad Tartuffe really is, the family plans to trap Tartuffe into confessing his desire for Elmire. Since he claims to be a very pious man, Tartuffe should have no such feelings for Orgon's wife. The family hopes that after a confession, Orgon will evict him from the house. 

Tartuffe tries to seduce Elmire, but their conversation is interrupted when Damis can no longer control his anger and jumps out of his hiding place to denounce Tartuffe. At first, Tartuffe is shocked. However, when Orgon enters the room and Damis tells his father what happened, Tartuffe acts innocent and accuses himself of being the worst sinner. Orgon is convinced that his son is lying and banishes him from the house.

Tartuffe has so much influence over Orgon that he even convinces him to teach his son a lesson. His suggestion is that Tartuffe should spend more time with Elmire than ever before. Orgon agrees and as a gift to Tartuffe, signs over to him all his possessions.

Determined to expose Tartuffe, Elmire asks Orgon to be a witness to a meeting between her and Tartuffe. Orgon agrees and decides to hide under a table in the room, confident that his wife is wrong. He overhears his wife resisting Tartuffe's advances. Having heard enough, Orgon comes out from under the table and orders Tartuffe out of the house. However, Tartuffe does not intend to leave.

Tartuffe reveals that he has in his hand a box of incriminating letters written by Orgon's friend. Orgon now regrets his decision to tell Tartuffe about the letters. Tartuffe now tells Orgon that he (Orgon) must leave. Tartuffe then leaves but only temporarily.

Orgon's family tries to reach a decision. An official arrives with a message from Tartuffe and the court. The family must leave the house because it now belongs to Tartuffe. Even Madame Pernelle, who up to this point has refused to believe that Tartuffe is not who he claims to be, is convinced of his deception.

As soon as the official leaves, Valère arrives with the news that Tartuffe has denounced Orgon for assisting a traitor by keeping the incriminating letters and will soon be arrested. Before Orgon can escape, Tartuffe enters with an officer, but to Tartuffe's surprise, the officer arrests Tartuffe instead. The officer explains that the king has heard of the injustices committed in the house and ordered Tartuffe's arrest. It is revealed that Tartuffe has a long criminal history and has often changed his name to avoid arrest. As a reward for Orgon's good services, the king forgives Orgon for keeping the letters and reverses the deed that gave Tartuffe the house and possessions. Orgon then announces the future wedding of Valère and Mariane.

In the play Tartuffe, the traitor is Tartuffe and not Orgon. The main theme of the play is hypocrisy. Tartuffe is nothing like the man he claims to be because he does not practise what he preaches. Through the play, Molière illustrates that appearances can be deceiving. 

Velar and Palatal Fricatives of South Jutlandic

South Jutlandic is one of the most famous Danish dialects. It is spoken in the southernmost part of Jutland and also in parts of northern Germany. Unlike in Standard Danish, South Jutlandic has palatal and velar fricatives. They are consonants which are also used in German. The following list gives examples:

bagefter bachætte (afterwards)

bog boch (book)

kage kach (cake)

pige pich (girl)

rigtig richte (correct)

sprog sproch (language)

stige stiich (ladder)

syg sych (sick)

særlig særrlich (particular)

tog toch (train)

The velar fricative is used after back vowels and the palatal fricative is used after front vowels. Words such as kach and toch have the velar fricative, and words such as richte and sych have the palatal fricative. South Jutlandic differs significantly from Standard Danish not only in vocabulary but also in phonology.

Word for Popcorn in Spanish Dialects

Spanish has many dialects. These dialects often vary significantly in their vocabulary. The Spanish word for popcorn can be expressed with many words. This is illustrated with the following list:

canchita (Peru)

canguil (Ecuador)

cocaleca (Dominican Republic)

cotufas (Venezuela)

crispetas (Colombia)

palomitas (Argentina, Costa Rica, Mexico, Spain)

pipoca (Bolivia)

pop (Uruguay)

poporopo (Guatemala)

pororó (Paraguay)

The word palomitas is the most common word for popcorn in Spanish. It is used in many countries. However, as the list illustrates, many other words are also used.

Alphabetisms

An extreme form of clipping is the use of the initial letters of syllables or words. The forms TB (tuberculosis) and TV (television) use the initial letters of syllables, and the forms CD (compact disc) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) use the initial letters of words. In the cases in which initialisms are pronounced with the names of the letters of the alphabet, they are called alphabetisms. 

Clipping in which the initials are pronounced as if they were a word are called acronyms. Examples include NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and ZIP (Zone Improvement Plan). If they were pronounced with the names of the letters of the alphabet, they would have more syllables.

One of the oldest English alphabetisms, and also the most successful, is OK. It originated as a form of oll korrekt, an intentional misspelling of all correct. OK is now used not only in English but in many other languages.

English has many examples of clipped forms. The clipped forms auto (automobile), fax (facsimile) and zoo (zoological garden) are very common. Alphabetisms, initialisms pronounced with the names of the letters of the alphabet, are also common.

Alveolar Retroflex Approximant in Brazilian Portuguese

Many speakers of Brazilian Portuguese use the alveolar retroflex approximant. It is the same sound which is used in English. However, the alveolar retroflex approximant of Brazilian Portuguese only occurs in the syllable coda.

The alveolar retroflex approximant can occur in the following words:

ar (air)

carne (meat)

norte (north)

porta (door)

sorte (luck)

The alveolar retroflex approximant is used in southern and central Brazil. However, those who do not use the retroflex approximant use the alveolar tap, alveolar trill, glottal fricative, velar fricative or uvular fricative instead. In word-final position, many speakers delete the rhotic consonant.

The retroflex approximant is not used in European Portuguese. It may be that the retroflex originated in the native languages of Brazil. The restriction of the retroflex approximant to the syllable coda can be considered a weakening process, a form of lenition.

Finnish Partitive Case

The partitive case is used extensively in Finnish. It is used to express an indefinite amount, with expressions of quantity, after number and to express an action that is in progress. Let us look at some examples.

The following sentences have partitive case:

Kaksi hevosta nukkuu. (The two horses are sleeping)

Minulla on kahvia. (( have coffee)

Minä juon maitoa. (I am drinking milk)

Meillä  on kaksi koiraa. (We have t\wo dogs)

He puhuvat vain suomea. (They only speak Finnish)

In Finnish the partitive case is used in many expressions. It is often used instead of the accusative case. The partitive case is also used in Estonian, a related Finno-Ugric language.     

                                                                                             

Galician Phonology

The Galician language is similar to Portuguese but also reflects Spanish influence. This is reflected in the phonology of the language. It has features of both Spanish and Portuguese.

Galician has seven vowel phonemes, two mid front vowels and two mid back vowels. This is the same as in Portuguese. Spanish, however, has five vowel phonemes.

Unlike in Portuguese, Galician has the voiceless interdental fricative and the voiceless alveopalatal affricate. They occur in the words feliz (happy) and choiva (rain). Galician also has the apicodental voiceless fricative and non-velarized lateral of Spanish. They occur in the words casa (house) and azul (blue). 

Galician has the palatal lateral and the voiceless alveopalatal fricative, sounds which also occur in Portuguese. However, it lacks the voiced alveopalatal fricative of Portuguese. The palatal lateral and the voiceless alveopalatal fricative occur in alho (garlic) and joelho (knee). In Portuguese, the word joelho has a voiced alveopalatal fricative.

Galician phonology shares characteristics of both Portuguese and Spanish. It has the seven vowel phonemes of Portuguese, the palatal lateral and the voiceless alveopalatal fricative. On the other hand, it also has the apicodental voiceless fricative, the voiceless interdental fricative and the voiceless alveopalatal affricate, consonants which also occur in Spanish.

Spanish and Portuguese Suffix

Spanish and Portuguese have a suffix which is used in many words. In Spanish the suffix is -aje and in Portuguese it is -agem. The following list illustrates the use of the suffix:

aprendizaje aprendizagem (learning)

aterrizaje aterrizagem (landing)

coraje coragem (courage) 

homenaje homenagem (homage)

lenguaje linguagem (language)

maquillaje maquiagem (makeup)

mensaje mensagem (message)

paisaje paisagem (landscape)

personaje personagem (character)

viaje viagem (trip)

The suffix is used in many words and is thus very productive. Words such as aterrizaje/atterizagem and viaje/viagem .have verbal forms. The infinitives are aterrizar and viajar. All the words with the suffix are nouns.

Loss of Stress With Repeated Information

In English stress is variable. In a noun phrase such as blue car, the main stress is on the noun car. However, in the question Is your car the blue car or the red car? the main stress is on blue and on red. The reason is that the word car is repeated.

In the phrase vegetable soup or green salad, the nouns soup and salad are stressed. This is in contrast to the phrase vegetable soup or chicken soup. This phrase repeats the noun soup. The result is that the nouns vegetable and chicken are stressed.

The loss of stress can also be illustrated with sports scores. With scores such as Vancouver 4 Toronto 2 and Montreal 3 Los Angeles 1, the main stress is on the final number. This is not the case with tied scores. With scores such as Vancouver 2 Toronto 2 and Montreal 1 Los Angeles 1, the main stress is on the city which precedes the final number. The reason is that the final number is repeated and is thus not stressed.

English words which repeat information lose stress. The result is that the stress shifts to the preceding word. This contrasts with many other languages.

Deontic and Epistemic Modality

Modal verbs can be classified into two types, deontic and epistemic. Deontic modality expresses obligation and permission, and epistemic modality expresses possibility and prediction. Context is often needed to determine if deontic or epistemic modality is expressed.

In the sentence You must be good to get into Oxford University, two interpretations are possible. Deontic modality is connected to necessity. To get into Oxford University, it is necessary to be a good student. However, epistemic modality states that it is evident that the person is a good student because he/she has already entered Oxford University.

The same modal can be used to convery different types of modality. In the sentence He must be tired, the speaker is sure that the person is tired. It is an example of epistemic modality. In the sentence He must go to prison, the speaker believes it is necessary for the person to go to prison. It is an example of deontic modality. The modal verb must conveys both deontic and epistemic modality.

Modal verbs can express deontic and epistemic modality. Deontic modality can express different degress of obligation and permission. The modal must expresses a higher degree of obligation than should. Epistemic modality can express different degrees of possibility. The modal must expresses a higher degree of possibility than might.

Palatalization of High Front Vowel in English

In English the high-front vowel [i] is often palatalized before another vowel. The high-front vowel and the palatal approximant are both [+high]. The palatal approximant is [-syllabic] and thus reduces the number of syllables in the world.

The palatalization of the high-front vowel is optional. It is most common in rapid and casual speech. However, it can also take place in formal speech.

The following words can be pronounced with palatalization of the high-front vowel:

Australia

furious

glorious

luxurious

media

The replacement of the high front vowel with the palatal approximant is an example of palatalization. It occurs immediately before another vowel and is always unstressed. The palatalization process that converts the high front vowel to the palatal approximant is common in English.

Translated Song (My Village)

The Norwegian singer Hanne-Mette Gunnarsrud has many beautiful songs. One of her best is Bydga Mi (My Village). Here are the lyrics along with my translation:

Bygda Mi 

Det er mange gode minner jeg har med meg

Fra de aller beste åra i mitt liv.

Den bekymringsløse vakre ungdomstida 

Er ett første valg i minnenes arkiv.

Men jeg søkte mer enn bygda kunne gi meg,

Var nysgjerrig på, hva livet kunne gi.

Jeg forlot deg like etter russetida

Og jeg trodde at vårt forhold var forbi.

Hva skjedde med kiosken nede på hjørnet?

Vi var samlet der hver dag.

Den gamle skolen står der tom og øde.

Hvor var jeg da bygda døde?

Vi var ikke der når penger måtte spares

Vi var ikke der når valgene ble tatt.

Ingen stemmer for bevaring av det gamle,

Det var fremskrittet som overskygget alt.

Hva skjedde med kiosken nede på hjørnet?

Vi var samlet der hver dag.

Den gamle skolen står der tom og øde.

Hvor var jeg da bygda døde?

Men en indre stemme ropte meg tilbake,

Og den sa at det var her jeg hørte til.

Materielle ting er enkle å forsake

Når man endelig forstår hva skebnen vil.

Hva skjedde med kiosken nede på hjørnet?

Vi var samlet der hver dag.

Den gamle skolen står der tom og øde.

Hvor var jeg da bygda døde?

Hvor var jeg da bygda døde?

My Village

There are many good memories I have with me

From the very best years in my life.

The carefree beautiful time of youth

Is one of the first choices in the memory archive.

But I sought more than the village could give me,

Was curious about what life could give.

I left you just after graduation time

And I thought our relationship was over.

What happened with the kiosk down the corner?

We were gathered there each day.

The old school lies there empty and deserted.

Where was I when the village died?

We were not there when money needed to be saved.

We were not there when the decisions were taken.

No voices for preservation of the old,

It was progress that overshadowed everything.

What happened with the kiosk down the corner?

We were gathered there each day.

The old school lies there empty and deserted.

Where was I when the village died?

But an inner voice called me back.

And it said that it was here I belonged.

Material things are easy to forsake

When you finally understand what fate wants.

What happened with the kiosk down the corner?

We were gathered there each day.

The old school lies there empty and deserted.

Where was I when the village died?

Where was I when the village died?

Words With The -ous Suffix

The -ous suffix attaches to many nouns. It is a derivative affix which converts nouns to adjectives. In many cases the stress of the adjective changes.

Here are then words with the suffix -ous:

adventure adventurous

envy envious

fame famous

glory glorious

grace gracious

miracle miraculous

ridicule ridiculous

study studious

victory victorious

wonder wondrous

In three words (miraculous/ridiculous/victorious) the stress changes. The stress always comes before the suffix. The word glorious can be pronounced with two or three syllables. If the word has two syllables, the vowel before the suffix becomes a palatal approximant. Palatalization changes the final consonant of grace to an alveopalatal fricative in gracious.

In the words miraculous and studious there is a vowel change. The second syllable of miraculous has a low front vowel. In the noun miracle it is a schwa. The word study has an upper mid central unrounded vowel, but in studious it is a high back rounded vowel.

The English suffix -ious is used in many English words. It is attached to nouns to derive adjectives. In many cases, changes in vowel quality and stress accompany affixation.

Schwa Insertion Before Liquids

Many English speakers insert a schwa before liquids. The liquid is always syllable-final. Schwa insertion is especially common between diphthongs and liquids.

Schwa insertion is very common in words such as boil, choir, fire, flower, trail and vowel. In non-rhotic varieties of English, the words with word-final r end  with the schwa vowel. In certain varieties of English such as the English of the southern USA, schwa insertion is also common in words such as door, feel, pool and tour.

The rule of schwa insertion before liquids applies in many dialects of English. It is especially common with diphthongs. Though the schwa never occurs immediately before another vowel, it can occur immediately after another vowel. The rule is optional and can thus be called variable.

Names of Countries in Hungarian

The names of countries in Hungarian are often quite different from those of other languages. A number of the names of countries in Hungarian end with the word ország. It means country in Hungarian.

The names of most countries in Hungarian do not end with the word ország. To illustrate, the names of Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Egypt, England, Japan, Mexico and Switzerland are Argentina, Ausztrália, Kanada, Kina, Dánia, Egyiptom, Anglia, Japán, Mexikó and Svájc.

Eighteen countries have names which end with ország. Here is the list:

Csehország Czech Republic

Észak-Írország Northern Ireland

Észtország Estonia

Finnország Finland

Franciaország France

Görögország Greece

Horvátország Croatia

Írország Ireland

Lengyelország Poland

Lettország Latvia

Magyarország Hungary

Németország Germany

Olaszország Italy

Oroszország Russia

Örményország Armenia

Spanyolország Spain

Svédország Sweden

Törökország Turkey

Most of the countries with the word ország are part of Europe. Russia and Turkey are Eurasian countries, and though Armenia and Georgia are geographically part of Asia, Armenians and Georgians  consider themselves Europeans. The word ország is also added to the Hungarian word for Hungary, Magyarország .

English Alveolar Flap Across Word Boundaries

The alveolar flap is common in many dialects of English. Two dialects which use it extensively are American English and Canadian English. The alveolar flap occurs intervocalically between a stressed vowel and unstressed vowel. However, it can also occur word-finally because it occurs across word boundaries.

The alveolar flap can occur in the following examples:

We visited Italy.

There are a lot of nice shops.

It is hot today.

The cat and dog are friends.

I made a cheesecake.

They rode a camel in Egypt.

In isolation the final consonant of visited, lot, it, cat. made and rode is not flapped. However, it can be flapped when the following words begins with a vowel. In the examples flapping occurs across word boundaries.

The alveolar flap occurs not only word-medially as in city but also across word boundaries. It is represented by the orthographic d and t. The flapping occurs when the consonant is linked to the following vowel. If there is a pause before the following vowel, flapping is blocked and thus does not apply.

Neutralization in Portuguese Nasal Vowels

Portuguese has two mid front vowels and two mid back vowels. One is open and the other is closed. However, the distinction is neutralized in nasal vowels.

Here are Portuguese minimal pairs to illustrate the contrast:

céu (sky) seu (yours)

sede (headquarters) sede (thirst)

só (alone) sou (am)

avó (grandmother) avô (grandfather)

The Portuguese words on the left have an open vowel, and the ones on the right have a closed vowel. The only difference is tongue height. However, the word sou (am) is pronounced with a diphthong in many varieties of Portuguese. 

The distinction is neutralized in nasal vowels. The words bem (well) and menta (mint) both have an open vowel. This is also the case with bom (good) and ponte (mint). 

The Portuguese language has two mid front vowels and two mid back vowels. One is open and the other is closed. The two vowels can contrast to create minimal pairs. However, in nasal vowels, the distinction is neutralized.

Article Agreement With Countries In Portuguese

In Portuguese, the definite article is usually used with countries. For countries that have feminine gender, the articles a (singular) and as (plural) are used, and for countries that have masculine gender, the articles o (singular) and os (plural) are used. However, with a number of countries, no article is used.

Here is a list of countries with the definite article and with no article:

A Albânia Albania

A Alemanha Germany

A Argentina Argentina

A China China

A Espanha Spain

As Filipinas Philippines

A Jamaica Jamaica

A Noruega Norway

A Polônia Poland

A Tailândia Thailand

O Brasil Brazil

O Canadá Canada

O Chile Chile 

O Egito Egypt

Os Estados Unidos United States

O Irã Iran

O Japão Japan

O México Mexico

O Peru Peru 

O Vietnã Vietnam

Angola Angola

Bangladesh Bangladesh

Chipre Cyprus

Cingapura Singapore

Cuba Cuba

El Salvador El Salvador

Israel Israel

Malta Malta

Portugal Portugal

Uganda Uganda

It is common to use the definite article with countries in Portuguese. The definite article has four forms: masculine singular, masculine plural, feminine singular and feminine plural. A number of countries, however, have no article.

Hungarian Personal Suffix

The Hungarian personal suffix is -lak/-lek. The first variant is used with verbs that contain front vowels, and the second with verbs that contain back vowels. It is a personal suffix because it is used when the subject pronoun is the first person singular and the object pronoun is the second person singular or the second person plural.

Here are five sentences with the personal suffix:

Hallak. I hear you.

Ismerlek. I know you.

Látlak. I see you.

Szeretlek. I love you.

Várlak. I'm waiting for you.

It is not necessary to use the subject pronoun because -lak/-lek is only used with the first person subject pronoun. The object pronoun can be either the second person singular or plural. If it is necessary to clarify, the accusative pronoun can be added. To say I see you with the second person plural object pronoun, the sentence is Látlak titeket. The subject pronoun can also be added and then the sentence becomes Én látlak titeket. The personal pronouns can also be added for emphasis.

The personal suffix can be used with all verb tenses. Here are examples with the past tense and the future tense:

Kerestelek. I was looking for you.

Láttalak. I saw you.

Keresni foglak. I'll look for you.

Látni foglak. I'll see you.

The Hungarian language has a personal suffix. It attaches to verbs with a first person subject pronoun and second person object pronoun. Entire sentences such as I love you can be expressed in Hungarian with one word.

Six Pronunciations of Arroz

The Spanish word arroz means rice. Though it is a short word, it can be pronounced in many ways. They depend on the dialect of the speaker. Let me give six different pronunications:

most of Spain: trill, voiceless interdental fricative

many parts of Latin America: trill, alveolar fricative

parts of Latin America and southern Spain: trill, deleted alveolar fricative

Puerto Rico: velar fricative, alveolar fricative

Puerto Rico: velar fricative, deleted alveolar fricative

Costa Rica, Paraguay: assibilated trill, alveolar fricative

The use of the voiceless interdental fricative is restricted to Spain. The alveolar trill is common in Spanish, but in Puerto Rico it can be a velar fricative and in Costa Rica and Paraguay it is often assibilated. The different pronunciations of the word arroz indicate that Spanish has many dialects.

Translated Song (Give Me Your Air)

The Spanish singer Alex Ubago has many popular songs. One of his most beautiful is Dame tu aire (Give me your air). Here are the lyrics along with my translation:

Dame tu aire

Hoy te perdí

Una vez más al despertar

Si soñara la realidad

Y viviera lo que se fue

Mi amor,

Míralo, pintando un cuadro sin color

Puedo ver un paisaje gris

Que refleja mi interior

Y en él, y en él

Palomas blancas vuelan raso

Sobre el tejado brilla el sol

Y rien todos, menos yo

Que ahora soy un reo más

Pidiendo a gritos la verdad

Mi vida eres tú

Y si te vas vendrá la oscuridad

Dame tu aire un día más

Para que pueda respirar

Que un rayo de luz me haga brillar

Que muera soledad

Hoy soñaré

Que despierto junto a ti

Y te canto canciones que

Anoche te escribí

Y llegaré por ti

A donde nadie pudo ir

Puedo ver el mejor lugar

De tantos que conocí

Y en él, y en él

Palomas blancas vuelan raso

Sobre el tejado brilla el sol

Y rien todos, menos yo

Que ahora soy un reo más

Pidiendo a gritos la verdad

Mi vida eres tú

Y si te vas vendrá la oscuridad

Dame tu aire un día más

Para que pueda respirar

Que un rayo de luz me haga brillar

Que muera soledad

Que ahora soy un reo más

Pidiendo a gritos la verdad

Mi vida eres tú

Me cegará la oscuridad

Dame tu aire un día más

Para que pueda respirar

Que un rayo de luz me haga brillar

Que muera soledad

Give Me Your Air

Today I lost you

One more time waking up

If I dreamt reality

And lived what went away

My love, look at it, painting a painting without colour

I can see a grey landscape

That reflects my interior

And in it, and in it

White doves fly low

On the roof shines the sun

And everyone laughs except me

That now I am one more prisoner

Crying out for the truth

My life is you

And if you go away the darkness will come

Give me your air one more day

So I can breathe

Let a ray of life make me shine

Let loneliness die

Today I'll dream

That I wake up next to you

And I sing songs to you

That I wrote last night

And I'll arrive for you

Where no one could go

I can see the best place

Of many that I knew 

And in it, and in it

White doves fly low

On the roof shines the sun

And everyone laughs except me

That now I am one more prisoner

Crying out for the truth

My life is you

And if you go away the darkness will come

Give me your air one more day

So I can breathe

Let a ray of life make me shine

Let loneliness die

That now I am one more prisoner

Crying out for the truth

My life is you

And if you go away the darkness will blind me

Give me your air one more day

So I can breathe

Let a ray of life make me shine

Let loneliness die

Inchoative and Durative Aspect in French

The phrase in five minutes is ambiguous. If the meaning is that the activity will last five minutes, it has durative aspect. However, if the meaning is that the activity will start in five minutes, it has inchoative aspect. The same phrase is not ambiguous in French.

In French the phrase in five minutes can be expressed in two ways. If the meaning refers to duration, the phrase is en cinq minutes. However, if the phrase refers to the moment the activity will start, the phrase is dans cinq minutes.

The sentence I will eat my lunch in five minutes is not ambiguous in French. If the sentence expresses that one will finish in a period of five minutes, the sentence is Je mangerai mon déjeuner en cinq minutes. However, if the meaning is that one will start to eat lunch in five minutes, the sentence is Je mangerai mon déjeuner dans cinq minutes.

In French phrases such as in five minutes can be expressed with two different prepositions. The preposition dans is used for inchoative aspect, and en is used for durative aspect. This is different from English, which uses the same preposition for both.

Personal Infinitive of Portuguese

The personal infinitive is a unique feature of Portuguese. It is not found in French, Italian or Spanish. However, it is also found in Galician, a closely related language.

With the first person plural, the personal infinitive suffix is -nos and with the third person plural, it is -em. The suffix attaches to the infinitive. Here are examples of how it is used:

Para chegarmos cedo, devemos ir agora. (To arrive early, we should go now.)

É importante nós falarmos com você hoje. (It is important for us to speak with you today.)

Para saberem mais, eles podem comprar o livro. (To know more, they can buy the book.)

É difícil eles encontrarem. (It's hard to find them.)

The Portuguese personal infinitive is a conjugated version of the infinitive. The suffix -mos is used with the first person plural, and the suffix -em is used with the third person plural. The suffix of the personal infinitive indicates the subject.

Adjectives With Two Comparative and Superlative Forms

English adjectives can form the comparative and superlative in one of two forms. One form is with the suffixes -er and -est. The other form is with the words more and the most before the adjective. However, with a few adjectives, both forms are possible.

Disyllabic adjectives with the -ly suffix can form the comparative and superlatives with both forms. For example, the adjective deadly has the forms deadlier/more deadly and the deadliest/the most deadly. The form that one uses is a matter of preference.

The following adjectives can form the comparative and superlative with both forms:

chilly

curly

deadly

friendly

kindly

likely

lively

lonely

oily

smelly

English adjectives usually form the comparative and superlative with only one form. However, a number of disyllabic adjectives with the suffix -ly can combine with both comparative and superlative forms. They are thus an exception.

Merger of Identical Spanish Vowels

In Spanish it is common to merge identical vowels. The result is that they are pronounced as one vowel with longer duration. The merger occurs when the two vowels occur next to one other.

The merger of identical Spanish vowels can occur in the following phrases:

la abuela (the grandmother)      

una amiga (a friend)                                                                                                                    

mi idea (my idea)  

tu uniforme (your uniform)

siete escobas (seven brooms)

The merger can also occur with an intermediary h. The h is silent and thus does not block the merger. An example is the word alcohol (alcohol). 

The merger of adjacent identical vowels is very common in Spanish. Two identical vowels are often pronounced as one vowel with larger duration. The merger of two vowels is an example of synalepha.

Dutch Strong and Weak Subject Pronouns

Dutch has strong and weak subject pronouns. They can also be called stressed and unstressed. However, not all the subject pronouns have strong and weak forms. Only a few do.

The following subject pronouns have strong and weak forms:

jij je (you)

zij ze (she)

wij we (we)

zij ze (they)

The strong forms are always stressed, and the weak forms are not. When the personal pronouns are used in isolation, only the strong forms are used. In the question Wie is de beste zanger? (Who is the best singer?), the answer is Jij (You) when only the pronoun is used in the response. The strong forms can also be used for emphasis. 

Many Dutch subject pronouns have a strong form and a weak form. In conversation the weak forms are very common. Unlike the strong forms, they are always unstressed.

Intervocalic Derhoticization in African American English

Many varieties of English are non-rhotic. This means that the /r/ is deleted or replaced with a schwa. However, this only occurs in the syllable coda.  In African American English, the deletion of the /r/ can also occur intervocalically.

The following words can be pronounced without an /r/ in African American English:

arrow

carrot

cherry

error

hurry

parent

spirit

squirrel

story

tomorrow

Many varieties of English delete the /r/ in the syllable coda. However, in African American English, deletion of the /r/ is also possible between vowels. In words such as error, deletion can occur both intervocalically and word-finally. The rule of intervocalic derhoticization distinguishes African American English from other varieties of English.

Vowel Quality in Affixed Forms

The vowel quality of certain words changes with affixation. This occurs with words that end with a high front tense vowel.  In certain words, the vowel becomes a high front lax vowel or a schwa. However, in others it remains the same.

The high front vowel changes in the following words:

beauty beautiful

fancy fanciful

mercy merciful

pity pitiful

plenty plentiful

happy happily

lucky luckily

merry merrily

noisy noisily

ordinary ordinarily

The high front vowel does not change in the following words:

arbitrary arbitrariness

happy happiness

holy holiness

likely likeliness

lonely loneliness

early earlier

easy easier

friendly friendlier

spicy spicier

wealthy wealthier

No rule can predict whether the vowel quality will change or remain the same in the affixed forms. However, with the comparative, it is clear that the vowel quality must remain the same because the comparative affix has a schwa. Since the schwa never precedes an adjacent schwa, the vowel quality does not change.

In cetain cases, the vowel quality of affixed forms changes. It can be considered a form of vowel weakening or lenition. The weakened vowel is either a high front lax urnounded vowel or a schwa.

Phonology of Finnish and Hungarian

Finnish and Hungarian are both members of the Finno-Ugric language family, a subdivision of the Uralic languages. Though they are not so similar to one another, they share a number of phonological similarities. One phonological rule which they share is vowel harmony.

The vowels of Finnish and Hungarian are similar. The two languages contrast short and long vowels. In Finnish the contrast is quantitative, but in Hungarian it is qualitative. Both languages have high front and mid front rounded vowels.

The consonants of the two languages are not as similar as the vowels. Both languages contrast short and long consonants. In Hungarian the contrast also occurs in the syllable coda.

Finnish lacks the affricates and alveopalatal fricatives of Hungarian. Consonants such as /b/ and /f/ are rare in Finnish and only occur in loanwords. The consonant /d/ usually only occurs intervocalically.

The Finnish and Hungarian languages demonstrate many phonological similarities. They include short and long vowels, short and long consonants and vowel harmony. Finnish vowel length is quantitative, but in Hungarian it is qualitative. Hungarian has more consonants than Finnish does.

Ten Pronunciations of Stroopwafel

The Dutch word stroopwafel means syrup waffle. It is a thin and round waffle cookie with a caramel filling between two layers. Due to the numerous dialects of Dutch, the word can be pronounced in at least ten different ways.

In Belgium the word stroopwafel is pronounced with a monophthong in the first syllable and a labiovelar approximant in the second. In most of Belgium the /r/ is an alveolar trill. However, in the cities of Brussels and Ghent, it is a uvular fricative or trill.  Thus the word stroopwafel has two pronunciations in Belgium.

In the southwestern Netherlands, most speakers have an alveolar trill. The first syllable has a monophthong and the second has a labiodental approximant. The labiodental approximant is used in the Netherlands instead of the labiovelar approximant.

In Amsterdam and the northern Netherlands, the alveolar trill is also common, but the first syllable has a diphthong. The diphthong is used instead of the monophthong of the southern Netherlands and Belgium. In the city of Leiden many speakers use an alveolar approximant in the first syllable rather than an alveolar trill and a diphthong in the second syllable.

In the southeastern Netherlands the /r/ is a uvular fricative and the second syllable has a monophthong. In cities such as the Hague, however, the second syllable has a diphthong. The /r/ is also a uvular fricative in Rotterdam, but the second syllable has the diphthong used in RP. The first component is a mid front unrounded tense vowel and the second component is a high back rounded lax vowel. In Utrecht, the /r/ is a uvular trill and the first vowel of the second syllable is a low back vowel rather than a low central vowel.

Most Dutch speakers use a velarized lateral in the word stroopwafel. However, in Nijmegen, a city of the eastern Netherlands close to the German border, the lateral is not velarized. This is also the case for other areas of the eastern Netherlands.

Here is a summary of the ten different pronunciations of stroopwafel in Dutch:

most of Belgium: alveolar trill, monophthong, labiovelar approximant

part of Belgium: uvular fricative/trill, monophthong, labiovelar approximant

most of the southwestern Netherlands: alveolar trill, monophthong, labiodental approximant

southeastern Netherlands: uvular fricative, monophthong, labiodental approximant

Nijmegen: uvular fricative, monophthong, labiodental approximant, alveolar lateral without velarization

Amsterdam and the northern Netherlands: alveolar trill, diphthong, labiodental approximant

Leiden: alveolar approximant, diphthong, labiodental approximant

The Hague: uvular fricative, diphthong, labiodental approximant

Rotterdam: uvular fricative, diphthong of RP, labiodental approximant

Utrecht: uvular trill, diphthong, low back vowel in second syllable

In the word stroopwafel, a number of segments can be pronounced differently. The /r/ can be a uvular fricative, uvular trill, alveolar trill or alveolar approximant. This results in at least ten different pronunciations.

Obstruents and Sonorants

All sounds can be classified into two classes. They are obstruents and sonorants. All obstruents are consonants, but sonorants consist of both vowels and consonants.

The class of obstruents includes plosives, fricatives and affricates. All vowels are sonorants but nasals, liquids and approximants also belong to the class of sonorants. Nasals and liquids are consonants with more acoustic energy than obstruents.

Obstruents are often voiceless, but sonorants are usually voiced. Obstruents are sounds which are formed by obstructing airflow. This is not the case with sonorants, which have greater airflow through the oral cavity and thereby resonate.

The two largest classes of speech sounds are obstruents and sonorants. All vowels belong to the class of sonorants. Most consonants belong to the class of obstruents, but consonants such as nasals and liquids are sonorants.

Family Relationships

Terms such as aunt, uncle, grandfather and grandmother are easily understood. However, the terms first cousin, second cousin, third cousin, great-uncle and great-aunt are often less clear. Let us clarify them.

First cousins are cousins who share a grandparent. The difference between them and the grandparent is two generations. Second cousins share a great-grandparent, a difference of three generations. In the case of third cousins, they share a great-great-grandparent. The difference is four generations.

Great-uncles are brothers of one's grandparent and great-aunts are sisters of one's grandparent. In relation to one's parent, great-uncle are the uncles of one's parent and great-aunts are the aunts of one's parent.

Cousins who share a grandparent are first cousins. Those who share a great-grandparent are second cousins. In the case of first cousins, their common ancestors represents a difference of two generations. Great-uncles and great-aunts are the brothers and sisters of grandparents.

Deletion of /r/ in Frisian

Deletion of the /r/ is common in Frisian. The /r/ deletes regularly when it is postvocalic and followed by a coronal consonant. In other positions, the /r/ is an alveolar trill.

In the following Frisian words the /r/ is deleted:

bern child

earn eagle

farsk fresh

fers verse

gers grass

kaart card

koarn barley

koart short

swurd sword

wurd word

In a number of recent loanwords, the /r/ is not deleted. Here are examples:

eksport export

fjord fjord

konsert concert

modern modern

start start

The postvocalic /r/ followed by a coronal consonant is deleted in Frisian. This is an example of weakening or lenition. However, in recent loanwords the /r/ is maintained. Many dialects of English also delete postvocalic /r/, but Frisian only does so before coronal consonants.

Numbers in Galician

Galician is a language spoken in northwestern Spain. It is similar to Portuguese. Let us compare the numbers from one to ten in Galician, Portuguese and Spanish:

un um uno

dous dois dos

tres três tres

catro quatro cuatro

cinco cinco cinco

seis seis seis

sete sete siete

oito oito ocho

nove nove nueve

dez dez diez

The numbers for one, two and four are different in the three languages. However, the numbers for five and six are the same in all three. The Galician word for four, catro, has no labiovelar approximant. The numbers for seven to ten are the same in Galician and Portuguese.

Six of the numbers are identical in Galician and Portuguese. Only two of the numbers are identical in Galician and Spanish. However, it is clear that the numbers are similar in all languages.

Galician is a Romance language that shares many similarities with Portuguese. However, Galician is a minority language in Spain and speakers of Galician are bilingual in Galician and Spanish. Though Galician is a language of Spain, it is more closely related to Portuguese.

Grammatical Case In English

A grammatical case is a category of nouns and modifiers. Languages such as Russian and German have extensive case systems. However, English does not. English nouns have two cases and English pronouns have three.

The two cases of English nouns are nominative and genitive. For example, in the sentence Linda has arrived, the subject Linda is in nominative case. We can make Linda the object of the sentence and say I see Linda, but Linda has no accusative marker. The form is the same as the nominative. An alternative analysis is that the accusative marker is 0, but regardless the noun has the same form.

The genitive case is marked with 's and indicates possession. The sentence I borrowed Paul's book has an example of genitive case. With inanimate nouns, possession is often expressed with a prepositional phrase such as the name of the school.

English pronouns have three cases. In the sentence They love to study, the subject They is in nominative case. The accusative form is them such as in the sentence I know them. In the sentence I love their new home, the word their is in genitive case.

Many languages use extensive case systems. English does not because nouns have only two cases and pronouns have only three. The English case system was once more extensive, but it simplified over time.

Allophones of Spanish

Allophones are variants of a phoneme. They occur in a specific environment. Let us examine a few examples of allophones in Spanish.

Many Spanish words end with the voiced interdental fricative. It occurs in words such as ciudad (city), edad (age) and verdad (truth). However, the word-final interdental fricative can also be deleted. The deleted formal is considered less formal and is an allophone of the voiced interdental fricative.

Words such as amor (love), regular (regular) and sabor (flavour) can be pronounced with a word-final alveolar flap or alveolar trill. The alveolar trill sounds emphatic. In varieties such as Paraguayan Spanish, the final consonant can be an alveolar approximant. The alveolar flap is the phoneme.

In the words esmeralda (emerald), isla (island) and cisne (swan), the fricative can be pronounced /s/ or /z/. The /z/ occurs as a result of regressive assimilation. The assimilation can also occur across word boundaries such as in dos rosas (two roses). In isolation, however, dos is always pronounced with a voiceless fricative. The voiceless fricative is the phoneme.

The dental fricative in words such as esmeralda (emerald), isla (island) and cisne (swan) can also be pronounced as a glottal fricative or deleted. This is common in varieties of Spanish such as the Spanish of southern Spain, Panama, Cuba and Chile. Deletion of the fricative is considered more casual than the realization of the glottal fricative. These two realizations are allophones of the voiceless fricative.

The pronunciation of Spanish consonants can vary. However, the allophones create no change in meaning. This is different from phonemes that create a difference in meaning. 

Frisian Vocabulary

Frisian is the closest Germanic language to English. However, it is closer to Dutch than it is to English. Nevertheless, many Frisian words are quite similar to English. Here is a list of ten words:

cheese tsiis kaas

church tsjerke kerk

day dei dag

ear ear oor

green grien groen

key kaai sleutel

rain rein regen

red read rood

sheep skiep schaap

year jier jaar

The Frisian word for key is much closer to English than it is to Dutch. With the other tsjerke (church), the first sound is a voiceless alveopalatal affricate in both English and Frisian. In Dutch, however, the first sound is a voiceless velar plosive. 

The word for ear is identical in both English and Frisian. The word dei (day) has a diphthong in Frisian and in English. In Dutch, however, dag (day) has a monophthong.

Though Frisian is undoubtedly closer to Dutch than to English, many Frisian words are very similar to English. A number of Frisian words are more similar to English than they are to Dutch. Nevertheless, English and Frisian are not mutually intelligible. 

Phonology of Mexican and Castlilian Spanish

Spanish has many dialects. Two well-known varieties are Mexican and Castilian. Let us explore the phonological differences between them.

Castilian Spanish has an apicodental voiceless fricative. Mexican Spanish, however, does not. The apicodental fricative is produced with the tongue tip. The Mexican Spanish fricative is produced with the tongue blade. In the word casa (house), Castilian Spanish uses an apicodental fricative, but Mexican Spanish uses a voiceless dental fricative.

In the word yate (yacht), Castilian Spanish uses a palatal approximant. The palatal approximant is also used in Mexican Spanish, but many speakers use a voiced alveopalatal affricate. The voiced alveopalatal affricate is not used in Castilian Spanish.

The velar fricative in joya (jewel) has a more dorsal pronunciation in Castilian Spanish. Many linguists classify it as post-velar or even uvular. The uvular pronunciation only occurs before back vowels.

In the word centro (centre), Castilian Spanish has a voiceless interdental fricative. In Mexican Spanish, the word begins with a voiceless dental fricative. The voiceless interdental fricative is not used in Mexican Spanish.

Castilian Spanish and Mexican Spanish have different phonology. The voiceless interdental fricative, the post-velar fricative and the apicodental voiceless fricative are not used in Mexican Spanish. On the other hand, the voiced alveolpalatal affricate and the voiceless dental fricative are not used in Castilian Spanish. The phonological differences serve to distinguish the two varieties of Spanish.

Low Front Vowel of Eastern Andalusian Spanish

Spanish has five vowel phonemes. The lowest vowel is the low central unrounded vowel. However, in Eastern Andalusian Spanish, the mid central unrounded vowel becomes front before an underlying /s/.

In Eastern Andalusian Spanish, the low front unrounded vowel is realized in the following phrases:

el castor (the beaver)

el sastre (the tailor)

la cascada (the cascade)

las madres (the mothers)

las plantas (the plants)

The low vowel occurs when the underlying /s/ is glottalized or deleted. This also applies across word boundaries. The low front vowel is an allophone of the low central vowel because it occurs before an underlying /s/. Its occurrence can be predicted.

The low front unrounded vowel does not occur in standard Spanish. However, in the Eastern Andalusian dialect, it occurs before an underlying /s/. This is a feature which serves to distinguish Eastern Andalusian Spanish from other varieties of Spanish.

Sound Correspondence Between German and Dutch

German and Dutch are both West Germanic languages. Though they are similar, they are quite different in their pronunciation. It is often the case that a word-initial /t/ in German is a /d/ in Dutch.

Here is a list of ten words for comparison:

Tag dag (day)

Tanz dans (dance)

tausend duizend (thousand)

tief diep (deep)

Tier dier (animal)

Tochter dochter (daughter)

tot dood (dead)

Traum droom (dream)

trocken droog (dry)

Tür deur (door)

The German voiceless consonant is often voiced in other Germanic languages also. The word Tag (day) is dag in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish and the word Tochter (daughter) is datter in Danish and Norwegian, and it is dotter in Swedish.

The initial voiced alveolar plosive became voiceless in German. German devoices word-final plosives, but it also has voiceless alveolar plosives in words which have voiced alveolar plosives in other Germanic languages. This process is known as fortition.

Differences in Pronunciation of Dutch and Afrikaans

Dutch and Afrikaans are Germanic languages. The Afrikaans language evolved from the Dutch language in the eighteenth century. Despite their similarity, there are significant differences in pronunciation.

The following words are identical in the two languages:

been (leg)

groot (big)

neus (nose)

Though the three words share the same spelling and meaning, they are pronounced differently. In Afrikaans the three words have diphthongs. The three words can also be pronounced with diphthongs in Dutch, but this is only the case in the northern dialects. Nevertheless, even in those dialects which use diphthongs in the three words, the components of the diphthongs are different.

In Dutch, been  is pronounced with a mid front unrounded tense vowel. In the northern dialects, the word has a diphthong. The second component is a high front unrounded lax vowel. In Afrikaans, the word also has a diphthong, but it is different. The first component is a high front unrounded lax vowel and the second is a schwa.

In Dutch, groot is pronounced with a mid back rounded tense vowel. The nucleus is diphthongized in the dialects of the north. In this case, the second component is a high back rounded lax vowel. In Afrikaans, however, the pronunciation is quite different. The first component is a high back rounded lax vowel and the second component is a schwa.

The word neus has a mid front rounded tense vowel in Dutch. In the northern dialects, the word has a diphthong. In this case the second component is a high front rounded lax vowel. In Afrikaans, the first component of the diphthong is a high front unrounded lax vowel and the second is a mid front rounded tense vowel.

The pronunciation of Dutch and Afrikaans is not identical. In the words groot, neus and been, the pronunciation varies in the southern and northern Dutch dialects. In the southern dialects, the words have monophthongs, but in the northern ones they have diphthongs. In Afrikaans, the words all have diphthongs, but they are different from the diphthongs of the northern Dutch dialects. 

Poem (February Twilight)

The American poet Sara Teasdale wrote February Twilight.  It is a short poem with two stanzas of four verses each. The poem is full of imagery.

February Twilight

I stood beside a hill

Smooth with new-laid snow.

A single star looked out

From the cold evening glow.

There was no other creature

That saw what I could see--

I stood and watched the evening star

As long as it watched me.

In the poem the second and fourth verses of each stanza rhyme with one another. It is a very quiet evening and only one star is visible. The star and the narrator are both alone and they spend time watching one another. The poem February Twilight expresses the beauty of nature, solitude and winter.

Negation in Finnish and Hungarian

Finnish and Hungarian are Uralic languages. Though they belong to the same language family, they are distantly related. The two languages express negation differently.

In Hungarian the adverb of negation is invariable and the verb is inflected. However, in Finnish the adverb of negation is inflected and the verb is invariable. Here are examples:

En puhu espanjaa.

Et puhu espanjaa.

Hän ei puhu espanjaa.

Emme puhu espanjaa.

Ette puhu espanjaa.

He eivät puhu espanjaa.

Nem beszélek spanyolul.

Nem beszélsz spanyolul.

Nem beszél spanyolul.

Nem beszélünk spanyolul.

Nem beszéltek spanyolul.

Nem beszélnek spanyolul.

The sentences mean the following:

I don't speak Spanish.

You don't speak Spanish.

He/she doesn't speak Spanish.

We don't speak Spanish.

You don't speak Spanish.

They don't speak Spanish.

The word order is the same in the two languages. However, Finnish always uses the pronoun in the third person. Hungarian can omit it in all persons. In Hungarian the adverb of negation (nem) is invariable. However, in Finnish the verb (puhu) is invariable.

Though Finnish and Hungarian belong to the same language family, they express negation differently. The structure of the Hungarian verb phrase with negation is similar to that of many other languages. However, the structure of the Finnish verb phrase with negation is different. It inflects the adverb of negation but not the verb.

Voiceless Alveopalatal Fricative of Northwestern Mexican Spanish

The voiceless alveopalatal fricative does not occur in most varieties of Spanish. However, it does occur in the Spanish of northwestern Mexico. It is used instead of the voiceless alveopalatal affricate.

The following words are pronounced with a voiceless alveopalatal fricative in the Spanish of northwestern Mexico:

champú (shampoo)

cheque (cheque)

chocolate (chocolate)

cuchillo (knife)

cuchara (spoon)

leche (milk)

lechuga (lettuce)

noche (night)

ocho (eight)

techo (roof)

The Spanish of northwestern Mexico has the alveopalatal voiceless fricative of English. In northwestern Mexico, the word champú sounds similar to the English word shampoo. In other parts of Mexico, the voiceless alveopalatal affricate is used.

Linear Equations With One Variable

 A linear equation with one variable is an algebraic equation with one solution. The linear equation x + y = 5 has many solutions. The value of x could be 2 and y could be 3, x could be 1 and 4, and x could be 5 and y could be 0. These all satisfy the equation. However, the linear equation x + 1 = 2 has only one solution. The value of x must be 1.

Let us look at a few linear equations. Here are five examples:

x + 6 = 10

3x + 2 = 17

y - 3 = 15

4x + 4 = 8

x + x + 3 = 7

The linear equation can be solved by putting the variable on one side of the equation and the numerical value on the other. The equations can be solved as follows:

x + 6 = 10

x = 10 - 6

x = 4

3x + 2 = 17

3x = 17 - 2

3x = 15

x = 5

y - 3 = 15

y = 15 + 3

y = 18

4x + 4 = 8

4x = 8 - 4

4x = 4

x = 1

x + x + 3 = 7

2x + 3 = 7

2x = 7 - 3

2x = 4

x = 2

Linear equations with one variable have only one solution. The variable is often represented by x or y,  but other letters such as a and b are also common. To solve linear equations, the variable is placed on one side of the equation and the numerical value on the other.

The Nightingale and the Rose

Oscar Wilde, the Irish poet and playwright, wrote The Nightingale and the Rose. It is a short story about love and sacrifice. In the story a young student is in love with a young woman.

The student asks the woman to go to a ball with him, but she tells him she will dance with him only if he gives her a red rose. However, the student's garden has no roses.

The nightingale listens to the student in despair over his situation and feels sorry for him. She knows how rare true love is, and she recognizes that the student is really in love.

She flies to a rose bush and offers to sing in exchange for a red rose. The rose bush only produces white roses, so it cannot give her what she wants. It suggests that she ask another rose bush.

The nightingale makes the same proposal to the next rose bush, but it only produces yellow roses. It directs her to the rose bush right under the student's window. Although the rose bush produces red roses, winter has frozen its branches so it cannot produce any.

The nightingale asks if there is any way for her to get a red rose for the student. The rose bush replies that there is a way, but she must do a terrible thing. The only way is to sing by moonlight while allowing a thorn to pierce her heart. Her blood can then seep through to the bush and produce a red rose. The nightingale agrees because she believes love is more valuable than life and a human heart is more precious than hers.

The nightingale sings with her heart against the thorn until it pierces her heart. The blood from her heart pierces the bush and produces a red rose, but by the time the flower has formed the nightingale is dead.

The next morning the students sees the red rose in his garden. He thinks it is merely good luck and picks the rose. When he presents the rose to the woman, she tells him that another suitor has given her jewels. Jewels are more valuable than flowers, so she will dance with another man at the ball.

The student angrily throws away the red rose. Then he walks home and decides to reject love. He prefers to focus on his studies, which are more practical.

The nightingale is the true love, the one who sacrifices her life. She truly loves the student, but he does not realize it. On the other hand, the woman does not love the student and does not appreciate his red rose.  The nightingale is very different from the woman who is materialistic and the student who quickly denounces love after he is rejected.

Hungarian Pluralization Rules

Hungarian nouns form the plural with the suffix -k. However, a linking vowel is needed with nouns which end with a consonant. This creates many plural forms.

The word autó means car. The plural is autók. However, with the word ház (house), a linking vowel is needed. The word for houses is házak. The plural of könyv (book) is könyvek. The linking vowel is conditioned by the final vowel of the root. Front vowels follow front vowels and back vowels follow back vowels. If the final vowel of the root is a neutral vowel, the linking vowel can be a front vowel or back vowel.

The accusative suffix is placed after the plural suffix. For example, I don't see the children is Nem látom a gyerekeket. The accusative suffix is -t, but in the word gyerekeket it is preceded by a linking vowel.

With numbers and quantitatives such as many, the plural is not used. The phrase két macska means two cats. The plural is not used because it is clear that the phrase is in the plural form. The phrase many cats is sok macska. The plural of macska (cat) is macskák, but in the examples it is not used.

The plural is not used with indefinite nouns, either. They are nouns which are not preceded by an article. For example, the sentence I love books is Szeretek könyvet. The accusative suffix is used, but the noun is not pluralized because the number is not specified. If the noun were preceded by a definite article, the plural would be used. The sentence I love the books is Szeretem a könyveket. The verb has a different form because the definite conjugation is required. In the sentence I love books, the indefinite conjugation is used.

The rules of Hungarian pluralization require a linking vowel for roots which end with a consonant. The plural suffix is always added before the accusative suffix. With number, the plural form of the noun is not used. 

Vowels of Danish In Comparison to Norwegian and Swedish

Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are North Germanic languages. Though they share many similarities, the vowels of Danish can be quite different from those of Norwegian and Swedish. Let us consider a few examples.

The word ja means yes in all languages. In Norwegian and Swedish, the vowel is low back, but in Danish it is low front. The vowel is unrounded in the three languages, but it is more open in Danish than in the other two.

The word du means you in all three languages. The Norwegian and Swedish vowel is a high central vowel, but the Danish vowel is high back. The Danish vowel has the same quality as in German.

In the word busk (bush), the vowel is a mid central rounded tense vowel in Norwegian and Swedish. In Danish, however, the vowel is a high back rounded lax vowel. It is higher and more retracted than the vowel of Norwegian and Swedish.

Another example is found in the word bro. In Danish the vowel is a mid back vowel, but in Norwegian and Swedish it is a high back vowel. The vowel of bro in Norwegian and Swedish is the vowel of du in Danish.

The vowels of Danish often differ from those of Norwegian and Swedish. They can differ not only in height but also in backness. The low front back vowel of Danish does not exist in Norwegian or in Swedish, and the high central rounded vowel of Norwegian and Swedish does not exist in Danish.

Distribution of Schwa in English

In English the schwa only occurs in unstressed syllables. However, in such positions it is very common. The occurrence of the schwa in English is not predictable, but a few rules can be formulated.

The schwa often occurs immediately before a stressed syllable. This is the case with the words ago, eleven and position. It is also very common after a stressed syllable. Consider the words carrot, lettuce and sugar.

Many function words have weak forms which have a schwa. Examples include a, and and to. The pronoun you also has a weak form which is pronounced with a schwa.

The schwa does not occur immediately before a vowel. In the word radio, the second syllable is never reduced to a schwa because it precedes another vowel. The word the has a schwa in the house, but in the orange, the vowel of the is a high front vowel because the word orange begins with a vowel sound.

Many words can be pronounced with either a schwa or a high front unrounded lax vowel. However, speakers usually prefer one vowel over the other. Examples include before, delicious and reply. In Received Pronunciation, the unstressed syllable does not have a schwa but a high front unrounded lax vowel. The schwa is used less frequently in Received Pronunciation than in other varieties of English.

Unlike in other languages such as Albanian, Afrikaans and Slovenian, the English schwa only occurs in unstressed syllables. It is a very common vowel in English, but its distribution is not predictable. Nevertheless, the schwa does not occur in every unstressed position. In English words which consist of two adjacent vowels, neither vowel can be a schwa. 

Names of Swedish Nominal Numbers

Numbers are often used to modify nouns. In such cases they are adjectives. However, numbers can also used for the purpose of identification. Such numbers are called nominal numbers.

Swedish has special words for the numbers from one to twelve. The word refers to the number itself and is thus a nominal number. It is different from the adjectival form. For example, two children is två barn in Swedish. However, to say The number two is coming soon in reference to the number of the bus or train, the sentence is Tvåan kommer snart. 

Here are the ordinal numbers from one to twelve in Swedish on the left and the nominal numbers on the right:

ett etta

två tvåa

tre trea

fyra fyra

fem femma

sex sexa

sju sjua

åtta åtta

nio nia

tio tia

elva elva

tolv tolva

In a few cases, the name of the ordinal number and the nominal number is the same. This is true with the names for the numbers eight and eleven. Unlike in English, Swedish has distinct names for the nominal numbers from one to twelve.

Vowels of Boston English

The English of Boston is one of the well-known varieties of American English. The vowels of Boston English are different from those of many American varieties of English. Though Boston is not so far from New York, the vowels are quite different. 

Unlike in New York, Boston has the cot-caught merger. The result is that the words cot and caught are pronounced the same in Boston. In New York, they are distinct.

In words such as father, Boston uses a central vowel in the first syllable. In New York English, the first syllable has a back vowel. This is the case in most parts of the United States.

Both Boston English and New York English are classified as non-rhotic varieties of English, but this is not the case for all speakers. In younger speakers, rhoticity has become more common, and in many cases, it is variable. Nevertheless, in words such as dark and star, many speakers use non-rhotic pronunciations. In Boston English, the vowel is low central, but in New York English it is low back.

The diphthongs in words such as night and out are pronounced differently in the two accents. In New York English, the first component of the diphthong is a low central vowel. However, it is a mid central vowel in Boston English. The pronunciation of the diphthongs in Boston English is similar to the pronunciation of the diphthongs in Canadian English.

Boston English has a number of features which serve to distinguish it from other varieties. Though Boston English is often considered similar to New York English, it is distinct. Features of Boston English include the cot-caught merger, the use of the low central vowel in many words and the mid central vowel in diphthongs.