Explanation of the Southern Accent with Minimal Pairs

The southern accent is an American accent which is spoken in many states of the southern USA. It differs significantly from that of standard American English. One difference is the pronunciation of the diphthong in words such as time and nice. In the southern accent many speakers use a monophthong. However, it is not the vowel heard in words such as hat and dance. 

The vowel in words such as hat and dance is a low front vowel. However, in words such as time and nice, the southern accent uses a low central vowel. The result is that the following words are clearly distinguished in the southern accent:

a/I

back/bike

bat/bite

cat/kite

fan/fine

had/hide

laugh/life

sad/side

sight/sat

vine/van

A common misperception of the southern accent is that the words illustrated are pronounced the same. However, this is inaccurate. Words such as cat and laugh have a low front vowel, and words such as kite and lfe have a low central vowel. The difference in tongue position results in different pronunciations.

Hungarian Loanwords in Slovak

Hungarian has borrowed many words from Slavic languages. However, Slavic languages have also borrowed words from Hungarian.  To illustrate, here is a list of ten Slovak words borrowed from Hungarian. The Slovak word is on the left, and the Hungarian word is on the right.

ceruza ceruza (pencil)

čizma csizma (boot)

ďumbier gyömbér (ginger)

gombik gomb (button)

jarok árok (ditch)

kefa kefe (brush)

tábor tábor (camp)

palacinka palacsinta (pancake)

ťava teve (camel)

vidiek vidék (countryside)

The words are very similar. In fact, three are identical. Though Hungarian has undoubtedly borrowed more words from Slovak, it is clear from the list that Slovak has also borrowed words from Hungarian.

The Goose and the Golden Egg

One of Aesop's fables is The Goose and the Golden Egg. The fable tells us that we should be satisfied with what we have. If we become greedy, we may lose what we have.

In the fable, a farmer has the most wonderful goose he can imagine. Every day he visits the nest, and it leaves him a beautiful, glittering golden egg.

The farmer takes the eggs to the market, and he soon becomes very rich. But it is not long before he becomes impatient with the goose because it gives him only a single golden egg a day. He feels he is not becoming rich fast enough.

One day, after he has finished counting his money, the idea comes to him that he can collect all the golden eggs at once by killing the goose and cutting it open. However, he does not find a single egg and realizes that his precious goose is dead. His greed is the reason he has no more golden eggs.

The fable teaches a valuable lesson. It is to be grateful for what we have and to be patient. If the farmer had been wiser, he would not have  killed his goose.

Croatian Word-Initial Consonant Clusters

Croatian is a Slavic language. One characteristic of Slavic languages is the large number of consonant clusters. Let us illustrate the permissible word-initial consonant clusters of Croatian with ten words.

gdje (who)

hvala (thank you)

knjiga (book)

mlijeko (milk)

ptica (bird)

tko (who)

vjelar (wind)

zdravo (hello)

žlica (spoon)

zvijezda (star)

The ten words have consonant clusters which do not occur in English. Many Croatian consonant clusters also appear word-medially and word-finally. All Slavic languages allow a large number of consonant clusters. This is evident in the list of Croatian words.

German False Cognates

German and English are both Germanic languages. They share many common words. However, a number of words are false cognates. They look the same as English words, but they do not have the same meaning. Here is a list of ten false cognates:

also (thus)

bald (soon)

fast (almost)

das Gift (the poison)

die Hose (the pants)

der Hut (the hat)

die Pest (the plague)

der Rat (the advice)

der Sender (the broadcaster)

die Wand (the wall)

German nouns are always capitalized. The article das is for neuter nouns, die is for feminine ones, and der is for masculine ones. Most of the false cognates from the list are nouns, but three are adverbs.

Norwegian Dialects Without Retroflex Consonants

Many Norwegian dialects have retroflex consonants. Retroflex consonants are pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled upwards and a little bit retracted. In such dialects, words such as gjerne (gladly) and hvordan (how) are pronounced with retroflex consonants. However, a number of Norwegian dialects lack retroflex consonants.

Dialects which use a uvular fricative or uvular trill do not have retroflex consonants. The uvular consonant maintains the same manner of articulation. This is true for the southwestern dialects of Bergen and Stavanger. However, the dialect of Arendal, a city in southern Norway, is an exception. It has a uvular consonant but also uses retroflex consonants.

Other dialects which lack retroflex consonants occur in western Norway. They have an alveolar trill and use it in all words. Dialects with the alveolar trill and no retroflex consonants include the dialects of Sogn og Fjordane and Sunnmøre.

Retroflex consonants are common in many Norwegian dialects. They are also used in many Swedish dialects. The dialects with a uvular fricative or trill usually lack retroflex consonants. However, the dialect of Arendal is an exception because it has a uvular consonant and also has retroflex consonants.

Pronunciation of Old French

Old French was spoken between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. The pronunciation was quite different from that of today. Though scholars cannot say precisely how it was pronounced, the spelling was a better indication of pronunciation than it is today.

The r was almost certainly an alveolar trill, the sound that is heard in languages such as Italian and Spanish. The ll was not a palatal approximant but a palatal lateral, and the ch was a voiceless alveolar affricate, a common sound in many languages. Today the letters ch represent not a voiceless affricate but rather a voiceless alveopalatal fricative. The process which changed the affricate to a fricative is known as spirantization.

The pronunciation of Old French was closer to the spelling than the pronunciation of modern French. For example, the word beau (beautiful) is pronounced with only one syllable. However, in Old French, it was two syllables. It consisted of a voiced bilabial plosive and monophthong in the first syllable and a diphthong in the second syllable.

The pronunciation of French has changed signifcantly through the years. Though the pronuncation of French changed, the spelling did not reflect the changes in the pronunciation. The result is that French spelling is not very phonetic. In this respect, French and English are similar.

English Sentence Structure

English is an SVO language. The basic sentence structure consists of the subject followed by the verb and the object. However, other structures are possible. The following sentences illustrate SVO and other sentence structures:

1) My father loves sports. (SVO)

2) It is late. (SVC)

3) They left. (SV)

4) I gave him an idea. (SVOO)

5) He lives in Boston. (SVA)

6) I saw her yesterday. (SVOA)

7) He arrived last week. (SVA)

8) Sometimes I paint. (ASV)

9) Autumn is my favourite season. (SVC)

10) Come here! (S) (VA)

The tenth sentence is different from the others because the subject you is not used. However, it is understood and can thus be classified as a covert subject. Adverbials usually follow the verb, but in the sentence Sometimes I paint, the adverbial precedes it. The fourth sentence has two objects, indirect and direct. The sentences exemplify the different structures of English sentences.

Ten Beautiful French Words

French has many beautiful words. Here is my list of ten beautiful French words:

argent (silver)

étoile (star)

fleur (flower)

lune (moon)

mirroir (mirrow)

montagne (mountain)

oiseau (bird)

rivière (river)

soleil (sun)

vent (wind)

Three of the ten words have nasal vowels. They are argent, montagne and vent. The final letters of argent, soleil and vent are silent.

Preservation of hv in Danish and Norwegian

Danish and Norwegian preserve the letters hv. They always occur word-initially. However, Swedish does not. In Swedish only the v appears.

Though Danish and Norwegian retain word-initial hv, the glottal fricative is not pronounced. The phonetic value is [v]. However, it was pronounced in the past. Swedish spelling reflects the current pronunciation because only v appears in Swedish spelling.

Here is a list of ten words to compare the Danish and Norwegian words with word-initial hv and Swedish words with word-initial v:

hvad vad (what)

hval val (whale)

hvede hvete vete (wheat)

hverandre varandra (each other)

hvem vem (who)

hvid hvit vit (white)

hvilken vilken (which)

hvor var (where)

hvordan hur (how)

hvorfor varför (why)

The words hvede and hvid are Danish, and hvete and hvit are Norwegian. Many interrogative pronouns begin with hv in Danish and Norwegian. Swedish no longer preserves the word-initial hv which is still present in Danish and Norwegian.

Variation in the Pronunciation of the Dorsal Fricative in Spanish

The dorsal fricative of Spanish can be produced with different places of articulation. It occurs in words such as gemelo (twin), jaula (cage) and juego (game). In many dialects it is realized as a velar fricative. However, in most of Spain it is a uvular fricative and in the Caribbean it is often realized as a glottal fricative.

The velar fricative is common in Mexico and many parts of South America. The glottal fricative is also used in many dialects. It is common in Colombia, Bolivia, the Caribbean and southern Spain. The uvular fricative is exclusive to northern and central Spain.

Spanish has many dialects. The dorsal fricative has three realizations. It can be uvular, velar or glottal. The uvular pronunciation is only used in Spain.

Rioplatense Spanish

Rioplatense Spanish is the variety of Spanish spoken in most of Argentina and in Uruguay. It originated in the Rio de la Plata Basin. One of the most distinguishing characteristics of Rioplatense Spanish is the alveopalatal fricative. It replaces the palatal approximant used in most varieties of Spanish.

In Argentina Rioplatense Spanish is spoken in southern Argentina and in the capital city. It is not spoken in northwestern Argentina nor in the northeastern region which borders Paraguay. Rioplatense Spanish is spoken in all of Uruguay.

The alveopalatal fricative is usually voiceless in the capital city of Buenos Aires and in Uruguay. In other parts of the country, however, it is usually voiced. It can be heard in words such as yo (I), ayer (yessterday), caballo (horse) and lluvia (rain).

Rioplatense Spanish is spoken in two countries, Argentina and Uruguay. It is spoken in all of Uruguay and most of Argentina. Though it originated in the Rio de la Plata Basin, it is now spoken over a much larger area.

One Word With Different Pronunciations in Three Languages

Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are similar languages. However, it can be the case that the same word in spelling and meaning is pronounced differently in each one. The word banan means banana in the three languages. The pronunciation of the word is different in each language. 

In Danish the word banan is transcribed /banæʔn/. The second syllable has a glottal stop before the word-final nasal. In Norwegian and Swedish, the word banan does not have the glottal stop of Danish. The word is transcribed /bɑnɑn/ in Norwegian. The Swedish pronunciation is similar, but in Swedish it is /banɑn/. The vowel of the first syllable is a central vowel in Swedish, but it is a back vowel in Norwegian.

Though Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are undoubtedly similar languages, they often differ in pronunciation. Norwegian and Swedish are closer to one another in pronunciation than Danish is. The word banan, which means banana, is pronounced differently in the three languages.

Use of de France/de la France in French

In French the phrases de France and de la France both mean from France. In certain cases, de France is used and in other cases, de la France is used. Sometimes both are used, but the meaning is different.

The phrase the cheeses of France is les fromages de France. However, in the phrase the geography of France, the translation is la géographie de la France. With political, economical and geographical concepts, it is natural to include the definite article.

Let us now look at two sentences. They are 1) J'ai un souvenir de France and 2) J'ai un souvenir de la France. They best translation for the first sentence is I have a souvenir from France, and the best translation for the second sentence is I have a souvenir of France. The first souvenir was bought in France, but it is not necessarily a really French souvenir. However, the second souvenir was not only bought in France but is a souvenir that really represents France.

The French phrases de France and de la France are similar. In certain cases, only one is normally used, but it can also be the case that both are possible. Howver, when both are possible, there is a nuance in meaning.

Poem (New Year)

 This is my latest poem. I hope you enjoy it.

New Year

Although often hard to believe,

One more year has already passed.

The old year decided to leave

And soon the new replaced the last.

How well can we recall the past?

What did we learn from the last year?

Why did it start and end so fast?

What message do we need to hear?

We wish all a happy new year,

One full of joy, hope, love and peace.

We need courage to remove fear

When life renews the yearly lease.

Every year adds one more chapter

And creates stories every day.

The new year presents the future

And then becomes part of the way.

Along the way we learn and grow,

And choose the path we wish to take.

Though we may not know where to go,

Every step shows the life we make.

German Glottal Stop

The use of the glottal stop is extensive in German. Almost all German words begin with a consonant. The reason is that the glottal stop precedes German words that would otherwise start with a vowel.

In the phrase das Essen (the food), a glottal stop is inserted between das and Essen. As a result, the Maximum Onset Principle, which places the maximum number of consonants in the onset, does not apply. The glottal stop is inserted between Prinz (Prince) and Eugen (Eugene) in the phrase Prinz Eugen. Again the Maximum Onset Principle does not apply.

The glottal stop is inserted between the first two vowels of Theater (theatre). The second syllable of the word is stressed, which creates the environment for the glottal stop. However, in the name Lea, the first syllable is stressed and the glottal stop is not used.

Let us consider the sentence Sie hat Äpfel und Birnen. It means She has apples and pears. In the sentence the glottal stop occurs before the words Äpfel and und.

Not all words written with an initial vowel are preceded by the glottal stop. One such word is the preposition in (in). In the sentence Ich wohne in Berlin (I live in Berlin), the glottal stop is used only once, at the start of the sentence.

Many languages use the glottal stop. However, it is used frequently in German. Almost all German words begin with a consonant because it precedes most words which would otherwise begin with a vowel.

English Affixes with Identical Forms

Affixes are forms that attach to the base to form new words. Because they do not occur in isolation, they are bound morphemes. A number of English affixes have the same forms but are in fact separate affixes.

Four affixes with identical forms are -en, -er, -s and -ing. Although they have the same phonological forms, they are two separate morphemes. The reason is that they have different meanings and different functions.

The affix -en is often used for the past participle. In the sentence I have eaten, the word eaten is the past participle of the verb eat. However, the affix en can also attach to adjectives to create verbs. In the senttence, I need to tighten my belt, the affix -en derives a verb from the adjective tight.

Let us now analyze the affix -er. It can be the agentive suffix in words such as painter, singer and teacher. However, it can also be the comparative suffix of adjectives and adverbs. In the sentence She was faster, the word faster is an adjective, and in the sentence She runs faster, the word faster is an adverb.

The affix -s marks the plural in words such as books, cars and tables. It can also mark the third person singular present form of verbs as in the sentence He always eats breakfast.

Another affix with two forms is -ing. It can be used to make gerunds, nouns derived from verbs. An example is the sentence Singing is a lot of fun. However, in the sentence They are singing, the affix -ing is a participle affix. The verbs are and singing create the present participle.

Affixes are very useful in the formation of words. Unlike nouns and words which can occur in isolation, affixes cannot. Nouns and verbs are free morphemes, but affixes are bound morphemes. Many English affixes have identical forms but are actually separate affixes.

Comparison of Finnish and Hungarian Nominative Plurals

Finnish and Hungarian plural nouns can vary. In Finnish they can be in the nominative or the partitive, and in Hungarian they can be in the nominative or the accusative. Let us compare the nominative plural nouns of both languages.

In Finnish nominative plural nouns end with -t and in Hungarian they end with -k. Both languages also use linking vowels for base nouns which end with consonants. Here are examples with the nominative singular and the nominative plural:

alma/almák omena/omenat (apple/apples)

asztal/asztalok pöytä/pöydät (table/tables)

csillag/csillagok tähti/tähtit (star/stars)

épület/épületek rakennus/rakennukset (building/buildings)

férfi/férfiak mies/miehet (man/men)

király/királyok kuningas/kuninkaat (king/kings)

királynő/királynők kuningatar/kuningattaret (queen/queens)

madár/madarak lintu/lintut (bird/birds)

szem/szemek silmä/silmät (eye/eyes)

szív/szívek sydän/sydämet (heart/hearts)

A few of the plurals are completely regular such as királynők (queens) in Hungarian and lintut (birds) in Finnish. However, in the Hungarian plural almák we can observe vowel lengthening and in madarak vowel shortening. In asztalok (tables) we can observe the linking vowel before the suffix.

In the Finnish plural pöydät (tables) we can observe consonant gradation and in kuninkaat (kings) we can observe both consonant gradation and vowel lengthening. Though Finnish and Hungarian use different suffixes for the nominative plural, they are both voiceless plosives. They also use linking vowels between consonants.

Finnish and Hungarian form the nominative plural with voiceless plosives. The suffix is -t in Finnish and -k in Hungarian. The two languages also use linking vowels to maintain the syllable structure VC at the end of the word.

Postnominal Article of Danish, Norwegian and Swedish

In Danish, Norwegian and Swedish the definite article is postnominal. This means that it follows the nouns and is a suffix. The postnominal article is used for both singular and plural nouns.

The noun phrase the cat is katten in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. The word katt means cat and the definite article is the suffix -en. However, the noun phrase the house is huset. The word hus means house and the definite article is the suffix -et. The suffix variant -en is used for common nouns and the suffix variant -et is used for neuter nouns.

The postnominal article is also used with plural nouns. The word kattene means the cats in both Danish and Norwegian. In Swedish the word is katterna. The plural cats is katte in Danish and katter in Norwegian and Swedish. Though the plural of cats is different in Danish and Norwegian, the phrase the cats is identical in the two languages.

The word husene means the houses in Norwegian and Swedish. However, it is husen in Swedish. The plural houses is huse in Danish and hus in Norwegian and Swedish. In Swedish the suffix variant -en is used with both singular common nouns and plural neuter nouns.

With adjectives before the noun, Danish drops the postnominal article, but Norwegian and Swedish do not. For example, the black cat is den sorte kat in Danish, but it is den svarte katten in Norwegian and den svarta katten in Swedish. The phrase the new house is det nye hus in Danish, but it is det nye huset in Norwegian and det nya huset in Swedish.

The postnominal definite article is used in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. This is not the case in Germanic languages such as English, Dutch and German. In Danish the postnominal article is not used with adjectives before the noun, but it is in Norwegian and Swedish.