Rules of Stress in English

English stress is irregular. Although first-syllable stress is the most common, it can appear on any syllable of the word. Nevertheless, a few rules can be given for stress in English.

Most disyllabic nouns and adjectives are stressed on the first syllable. Examples include climate, funny, knowledge and lovely.

Many disyllabic verbs are stressed on the final syllable. Examples include decide, excuse, insist and require.

Stress the penultimate syllable of words with the suffixes -ic, -sion and -tion. The suffix occurs in words such as basic, geographic, division, extension, organization and situation.

Stress the antepenultimate syllable of words with the suffix -al. This can be seen in words such as critical and exceptional. The word circumstancial with penultimate stress is an exception to this rule.

Though English stress is variable, rules can be given regarding the stress of certain words. Words with native suffixes such as childhood, faster and kindness have first-syllable stress, but words with non-native suffixes often do not.

Puns of William Shakespeare

A pun is defined as a play of words. William Shakespeare included many in his works. Here are five examples of puns used by William Shakespeare:

In the opening of Richard III, Richard describes himself as follows: ''Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this sun of York.'' The speaker refers to himself, a son of the house of York.

In Romeo and Juliet, Mercutio is stabbed by Tybalt. Before he dies, he makes a joke about his death, retaining his sense of humour until the final moment. He says, ''Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.''

Hamlet has several puns. Hamlet is annoyed by the king's constant referral to him as his son. When Claudius asks him, ''How is it that the clouds still hang over you?'', Hamlet responds, ''Not so, my lord, I am too much in the sun.''

Wandering in a graveyard, Hamlet asks a gravedigger whose grave he's digging. The gravedigger, standing in the grave, answers ''Mine, sir." Hamlet laughingly accuses the man of lying, saying ''I think it be thine indeed, for thou liest in it.''

After Hamlet has killed Polonius, the king asks him where Polonius is. Hamlet tells him ''Not where he eats, but where he is eaten.'' Hamlet means that Polonius is the supper for worms.

These examples illustrate William Shakespeare's skill in the use of puns. He was very fond of them. He used them extensively not only in his plays but also in his sonnets.

Barley Cream with Blackcurrant Sauce

Barley cream with blackcurrant sauce is a delicious Norwegian dessert. Here is the recipe:

1 cup barley
4 cups milk
2 teaspoons vanilla extract
1 cup whipping cream
2 tablespoons sugar
1/3 cup blackcurrants
1/2 cup icing sugar
1/2 cup water

Bring the barley to a boil over low heat with the milk and vanilla.
Boil until the milk evaporates.
Mix the blackcurrants, icing sugar and water in a saucepan.
Bring to a boil.
Whip cream and sugar.
Fold into the barley.
Serve with the blackcurrant sauce.

Sour Egg Soup

Sour egg soup is a traditional Hungarian dish and it's easy to cook. Here is the recipe:

2 tablespoons oil
1 onion, finely chopped
2 tablespoons flour
1 teaspoon paprika
1 bayleaf
1 teaspoon salt
1/2 teaspoon pepper
5 cups water
4 eggs
2 tablespoons sour cream
vinegar

Heat the oil, onion and flour to make a roux.
When the roux is ready, remove from the heat.
Add the paprika and pour in the water.
Add the bay leaf, salt and pepper.
Boil over medium heat for about 5 minutes, until the onions are tender.
Beat two eggs and pour into the soup.
Stir constantly.
Crack the remaining two eggs one by one.
Gently pour into the soup while it is simmering.
Let them cook for about 3 minutes.
Once the eggs are done, turn off the heat.
In a small bowl mix the sour cream and some of the soup until well combined.
Stir the mixture into the soup.
Add a little bit of vinegar.

Sound Correspondence between Dutch and German

Dutch and German are Germanic languages with many similarities. These can also be observed in sound correspondences. A k in Dutch often corresponds to a ch in German. The German word is on the left and the Dutch word on the right. Here are examples:

Besuch bezoek (visit)
Buch boek (book)
Dach dak (roof)
ich ik (I)
Koch kok (cook)
Milch melk (milk)
Schuhmacher schoenmaker (shoemaker)
schwach zwak (weak)
Tuch doek (cloth)
wirklich werkelijk (really)

The German words reflect lenition. The velar plosive of Dutch became the velar and palatal fricative of German. The palatal fricative is present in ich, Milch and wirklich. This sound correspondence is not only in Dutch and German but in fact in other Germanic languages. The word for book is bok in Swedish and Norwegian. However, because of the similarity of Dutch and German, this sound correspondence is best illustrated by comparing the vocabulary of these two languages.

Tempo of Different Languages

Languages vary in their tempo. Certain languages are spoken more quickly than others. Researchers from the University of Lyon asked 59 native speakers to read the following passage in their own language: "Last night I opened the front door to let the cat out. It was such a beautiful night that I wandered down to the garden to get a breath of fresh air. Then I heard a click as the door closed behind me."

Researchers calculated the average number of syllables spoken per second. Here are the results for Chinese (Mandarin), English, Japanese and Spanish:

Syllables per second:

Japanese 7.84
Spanish   7.82
English    6.19
Chinese   5.18

Of these four languages, the one with the highest number of syllables per second was Japanese. The one with the lowest number was Chinese. Spanish placed a close second behind Japanese.

The language with the highest number of syllables per second, Japanese, is a language in which each syllable tends to convey little information. The reason is that Japanese words often have many syllables. In contrast, Chinese syllables convey more information because Chinese is a tone language and many words are monosyllabic. The research appears to indicate that languages with syllables which contain a significant amount of information tend to be spoken more slowly than languages with syllables which convey less information.

Epenthesis in Danish Compounds

Danish compounds often contain an epenthetic vowel. This vowel occurs between two consonants. However, epenthesis doesn't always apply. In the compound halbror (half brother), no epenthesis occurs.

Here are Danish compounds with epenthesis:

barnebarn (grandchild)
drengecykel (boys's bicycle)
fiskefrikadelle (fishball)
gulerod (carrot)
hestesko (horseshoe)
hundefoder (dog food)
hundesnor (dog leash)
julekort (Christmas card)
julelys (Christmas candle)
sygehus (hospital)

Here is the etymological analysis of the compounds:

barnebarn = barn + barn (child + child)
drengecykel = dreng + cykel (boy + bicyle)
fiskefrikadelle = fisk + frikadelle (fish + ball)
gulerod = gul + rod (yellow + root)
hestesko = hest + sko (horse + shoe)
hundefoder = hund + foder (dog + food)
hundesnor = hund + snor (dog + leash)
julekort = jul + kort (Christmas + card)
julelys = jul + lys (Christmas + candle)
sygehus = syg + hus (sick + house)

The epenthetic vowel in Danish compounds is an e. This epenthetic vowel is also common in Norwegian compounds. This can be seen in the Norwegian compounds barnebarn (grandchild), gulerot (carrot), hestesko (horseshoe), julekort (Christmas card), julelys (Christmas candle) and sykehus (hospital). This epenthesis is absent in Swedish words such as barnbarn (grandchild), julkort (Christmas card), julljus (Christmas candle) and sjukhus (hospital).

Epenthesis is common in Danish compounds. This is also common in Norwegian compounds but not in Swedish ones. The epenthetic vowel changes the CV structure of the word. The CC structure of the word-final consonant of the first compound and the word-initial consonant of the second compound becomes CVC.

Every Season

Every Season is the title of my latest poem. Here it is:

Every Season

In every season arrive lovely days
To help us reflect on each quarter year.
Every season becomes our hidden maze.
From there amazing adventures appear.
Spring brings sweet songs of birds and blooming flowers,
Warmth of sunlight and scenes of bright blue skies.
In heat of summer days leave longer hours,
Late evening sunset and early sunrise.
In autumn coloured leaves appear on trees
As temperatures cool after summer sun.
Winter's shorter dark days begin to freeze,
Falling snowflakes show winter's work begun.
Scenes from every season make lives complete,
Starting vivid images when they meet.

This is a Shakespearean sonnet. It has fourteen verses and each verse has ten syllables. The rhyme scheme is abba cdcd efef gg. The rhyming couplet at the end is typical of the Shakespearean sonnet.

Egg Cream

Egg cream is a Norwegian custard. It's easy to make. Here's the recipe:

2 cups milk (hot)
3 tablespoons sugar
2 tablespoons corn starch
2 eggs
pinch of salt

Mix the sugar, corn starch, eggs and salt.
Add hot milk.
Stir until thick.
Serve hot or cold.

Breton

Breton is a Celtic language spoken in Brittany, France. The language now has approximately 200,000 speakers. Breton is related to Irish and Welsh. Here is a list of the numbers in Breton from one to ten:

unan
daou
tri 
pevar
pemp
c'hewc'h
seizh
eizh
nav 
dek

From the list of numbers, we see that Breton bears little resemblance to French. The language is only spoken by about 5% of the population of Brittany. However, attempts have been made in recent years to encourage the growth of the language in order to ensure its survival.

Spaghetti in Red Wine

Spaghetti in red wine is tasty and easy to make. Though this isn't the most famous Italian spaghetti dish, it's well worth the effort. Here's the recipe:

250 grams spaghetti
1 cup red wine
olive oil
pepperoni, sliced
1 clove of garlic, chopped
salt
basil
grated parmesan

Put a bit of olive oil in a pan.
Add a clove of garlic and some pepperoni.
When the garlic starts to brown, add the wine.
Salt lightly and add the basil.
Now start to boil the spaghetti.
When the spaghetti is half-cooked (about 5 minutes), transfer to the pan with the red wine.
Add a bit of the liquid from the spaghetti.
Continue cooking until the liquid evaporates and the spaghetti is done.
Add the grated parmesan and serve.

This is a great way to cook spaghetti. Enjoy!

The Suffix -ship

The suffix -ship can be added to a number of nouns to create another class of nouns. It is less productive than the  very productive suffix -tion. In German the corresponding derivational suffix is -schaft, in Dutch -schap, in both Swedish and Norwegian -skap and in Danish -skab. Here is a list of ten common words with the suffix -ship:

censorship
championship
citizenship
dictatorship
fellowship
friendship
membership
ownership
scholarship
sportsmanship

The English suffix -ship attaches to nouns. Other Germanic languages have a similar suffix. In certain cases the noun is always singular as in censorship and in other cases the noun also has a plural form as in scholarship/scholarships.

Ten Popular Liqueurs

Liqueurs are liquors that have been flavoured and sweetened. Many different liquors are produced. Here is a list of ten popular ones:

Amaretto
Bailey's
Chambord
Creme de Cassis
Cherry Heering
Chartreuse
Frangelico
Grand Marnier
Sambuca
St. Germain

Amaretto is an almond-flavoured liquor from Italy. Bailey's is from Ireland, a whiskey-based cream liqueur. Chambord is from France and is flavoured with raspberry. Creme de Cassis is also from France and is flavoured with blackcurrant.  Cherry Heering is a cherry liqueur from Denmark. Chartreuse is from France and is a brandy-based liqueur with many herbs. Frangelico is from Italy and is flavoured with hazelnut. Grand Marnier is from France and is an orange liqueur. Sambuca is from Italy and is flavoured with licorice. Finally, St. Germain is from France and is flavoured with elderflower.

Sonnet 15

One of William Shakespeare's most famous sonnets is Sonnet 15. Here it is:

Sonnet 15

When I consider every thing that grows
Holds in perfection but a little moment,
That this huge stage presenteth nought but shows
Whereon the stars in secret influence comment;
When I perceive that men as plants increase,
Cheered and cheque'd by the self-same sky,
Vaunt in their youthful sap, at height decrease,
And wear their brave state out of memory;
Then the conceit of this inconstant stay
Sets you most rich in youth before my sight
Where wasteful Time debateth with Decay,
To change your day of youth to sullied night;
And all in war with Time for love of you,
As he takes from you, I engraft you new.

Sonnet 15 tells the reader that perfection is only temporary. Everything will decay over time. However, the poem has the power to immortalize the poet's friend and make him new again.

The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. The rhyming couplet at the end characterizes the Shakespearean sonnet.

Then and Now

Then and Now is a historical novel by William Somerset Maugham. The novel is mainly set in Imola, Italy. It focuses on three months in the life of Niccolo Macchiavelli, a Florentine diplomat and writer. The main characters are Caesar Borgia, Niccolo Machiavelli, Piero Giacomonini, Niccolo's aide, Bartolomeo Martinelli, a merchant, and his young wife Monna Aurelia.

Niccolo Macchiavelli meets Caesar Borgia, the Duke of Valentinois. The government of Florence wants to conclude an agreement with Cesare Borgia to guarantee that he won't attack their city. However, the negotiations are far from simple. The Duke has a powerful army and proves to be a formidable rival.

The novel is full of political intrigue, analysis of human frailty and wit. In the middle of his negotations with the Duke, Niccolo Machiavelli becomes interested in Monna Aurelia, the wife of Bartolomeo Martinelli, a wealthy merchant of Imola. Parts of the dialogue of the novel are authentic based on the records of the time.

Though Niccolo Machiavelli is a very clever diplomat, he fails to convince Caesar Borgia to sign a treaty with Florence. As a result of his lack of success, Florence decides to reassign him and send another diplomat in his place. Humiliated upon his return to Florence, Niccolo Machiavelli decides to write a novel to gain his revenge against the Duke and all those who humiliated him.

Then and Now reflects the thoughts and emotions of Niccolo Machiavelli. The novel is set during the Italian Renaissance and contains many historical details. Then and Now is a fascinating perspective of the rivalry between Niccolo Machiavelli and Caesar Borgia.

Cream of Spinach

Cream of spinach is a very tasty French soup. It doesn't take very long to prepare. Here's the recipe:

450 grams spinach
1 onion
2 potatoes
2 tablespoons butter
4 cups chicken or vegetable broth
2/3 cup cream
salt
pepper

Peel and chop the onion.
Peel and dice the potatoes.
Melt the butter in a pot over medium heat.
Add the onions and cook until soft.
Add the diced potatoes and broth.
Bring to a boil and then reduce to a simmer.
Cook for 20 minutes or until the potatoes are tender.
Add the spinach and cook for 5 more minutes.
Use a blender to puree the soup and then return to the pot.
Stir in the cream and add the salt and pepper.
Heat and serve.