Simple Past in Yes/No and Wh-Questions

With be verbs, English questions mark the simple past with the main verb. In the question, Where were they?, the verb were is in the simple past. However, with other verbs, only the auxiliary verb is in the simple past. It is used in combination with the main verb.

Consider the question What did you say? The first verb is in the simple past, did. However, the main verb say is not. This pattern is also true for yes-no questions. Consider the example Did she agree? Only the auxiliary verb is in the simple past. The main verb is not in the past tense.

The same structure is used for emphasis. The sentence They went is more emphatic with the structure They did go. In this structure, the auxiliary verb is in the simple past, but the main verb is not.

In English questions with be-verbs, the be-verb is in the simple past. However, with other verbs, English adds an auxiliary verb. This process can be called do-support. The auxiliary verb is in the simple past but the main verb remains in the base form.

Pronunciation of Stressed er in Scottish English

The letters er occur in many English words. In Scottish English, the stressed vowel is not r-coloured but two segments. In contrast to other varieties that have a central vowel, the Scottish vowel is a front vowel such as in the word bear.

The following words are pronounced with a front vowel and alveolar approximant in Scottish English:

certain

early

emergency

learner

permanent

person

search

service

university

verb

In Scottish English, the words in the list are pronounced with a front vowel. This is different from other dialects of English such as American English and RP, which pronounce the words with a central vowel. Another distinction is that Scottish English does not use r-coloured vowels but rather a combination of a vowel and rhotic consonant.

Language of Birds

Dr. Toshitaka Suzuki, an animal linguist at the University of Tokyo, proved that a Japanese bird called the tit uses syntax in its calls. By combining two different sounds, the birds are able to communicate messages such as the location of a food source and a warning to other birds of the presence of a predator. The birds use syntax because the sounds that are combined to produce a message must be used in a specific order.

Dr. Suzuki's research illustrated that the order of the sounds is important to the birds. It is a fundamental aspect of the structure of human language. For example, the sentence "Alex sees Helen" has a different meaning from "Helen sees Alex".

The Japanese tit uses a variety of different calls. One is to signal danger and another is to call other birds. One call warns the birds to approach cautiously because of the presence of a predator, but reversing the other does not produce the same response. This confirms that the birds understand the sequence of the sounds.

This research suggests that the ability to combine sounds into meaningful sequences also exists in birds. In other words, they have the cognitive ability to merge sounds in a specific order. Dr. Suzuki's work proves that they use syntax to communicate with one another.

Poem (Dreams)

 The American poet Langston Hughes wrote the poem Dreams. Here it is:

                                          Dreams

Hold fast to dreams

For if they die

Life is a broken-winged bird

That cannot fly.

Hold fast to dreams

For when dreams go

Life is a barren field

Frozen with snow.

The poem consists of two stanzas with four verses each. Each verse consists of four syllables, but the third verse of the first stanza has seven, and the third verse of the second has six. The second and four verses of each stanza rhyme.

Langston Hughes expresses the importance of dreams. He compares the death of dreams to a bird that cannot fly and a barren field of snow. Just like the injured bird and the barren field, a life without dreams is a life that is not complete.

Quirky Subject in Icelandic

In Icelandic, the subject is not always in nominative. It is often marked accusative or dative. This type of subject is called a quirky subject, and Icelandic is a language in which it occurs.

The sentence I am cold with the meaning of I feel cold is Mér er kalt in Icelandic. The subject is in dative case. In the sentence I want water, Icelandic uses the accusative case in subject position. The Icelandic sentence is Mig langar í vatn. In both sentences, English uses nominative case, but Icelandic does not.

In English the subject is always marked in nominative case. However, in other languages such as Icelandic, this is not the case. Icelandic has quirky subjects, subjects that are not marked with the nominative case.

May/Must in Danish and Norwegian

Danish and German are both Germanic languages, and they share many similarities. However, sometimes the same word has different meanings in the two languages. One such word is må.

In Norwegian the word means must and in Danish it means may. Here the word may expresses permission and can be replaced with can. Let us illustrate with examples.

The sentence "You must go" is Du skal gå in Danish and Du må gå in Norwegian. Though the sentence is identical in both languages, the meaning is different. To say "You may go" with the meaning of "You have permission to go", Danish uses Du må gå and Norwegian uses Du kan gå.

Though Danish and Norwegian are often very similar, there are significant differences. In certain cases, identical words havc different meanings. This is the case with the Danish word for may and the Norwegian word for must.

Portuguese Lateral Approximant

The Portuguese lateral approximant has two allophones. One is the alveolar lateral and the other is velarized. They are also known as the light l and dark l. In Brazilian Portuguese, however, the velarized lateral is only used in the southernmost part of Brazil. In other parts, the lateral is vocalized.

In the word lago (lake), the lateral is not velarized. However, in the word sal (salt), the lateral is velarized in Portugal and in the southernmost part of Brazil. In the rest of Brazil, the syllable-final l is vocalized. In intervocalic position, the lateral is usually pronounced without velarization in Brazil, but with a bit of velarization in Portugal. 

Portuguese has two allophones for the lateral approximant. One is used for syllable-initial position and the other for syllable-final. In European Portuguese, the syllable-final lateral is velarized, but in Brazilian Portuguese, the lateral is vocalized by the majority of speakers.

Modification of Nouns with -tion and -sion

Many English nouns end with the suffix variants -tion and -sion. They are both variants of the suffix -ion. In many cases, the suffix -ion is added directly to the root. This is the case with forms such as confession and reaction. However, many nouns modify the root in combination with the suffix.

The following forms all have modified roots:

add-addition

appear-apparition

apply-application

combine-combination

comprehend-comprehension

describe-description

divide-division

organize-organization

reduce-reduction

solve-solution

The word appear is quite different from apparition. In fact, the word appearance also exists, but the word apparition is used for an unexpected, remarkable appearance. In words such as addition and combination, the epenthentic vowel changes the syllable structure from VC.C to V.CV.

Voiceless Vowels of European Portuguese

Voiceless vowels often become voiceless in European Portuguese. This happens with vowels that are unstressed and is very common at the end of words and in rapid speech. The vowels can also be completely deleted.

The words quatro (four), sete (seven) and escola (school) all have vowels that can be voiceless. In the word quatro, the final vowel can be voiceless or completely deleted. This is also the case with the final vowel of sete. In the word escola, the first vowel can be voiceless. When the vowels are voiceless, they are pronounced without vocal cord vibration.

In European Portuguese, voiceless vowels are very common. They also occur in varieties of Brazilian Portuguese, but they are a feature that is much more associated with European. The use of voiceless vowels is more common in the dialects of southern and central Portugal than in the northern ones.

Use of Diminutive in Mexican Spanish

The diminutive suffix -ito/ita can be added to many Spanish words. Examples include casita (little house),and hermanito (little brother). The words house and brother are casa and hermano. However, the use of the diminutive tends to be more extensive in Mexican Spanish than in many other Spanish dialects.

Close friends can be called amiguitos (little friends) and shade can be sombrita (little shade). Without the diminutive suffix, they are cerveza and sombra. The words cervecita (little beer) and cafecito (little coffee) can be used instead of cerveza and café. Though the diminutive is also used in Castilian Spanish, it is used less extensively.

The use of the diminutive in Mexican Spanish is not limited to nouns. It can also be used in other cases such as muchito (a lot), ahorita (now) and sabrosito (tasty). Without the diminutive suffix, the words are mucho, ahora and sabroso. 

One of the features of Mexican Spanish is the use of the diminutive suffix. It is used far more than in many other dialects. It is not restricted to nouns but can also be used with other grammatical categories such as adjectives and adverbs.

Alveolar Approximant of Scottish English

Most varieties of Scottish English are rhotic. This means that the r is pronounced in all positions. It is often realized as an alveolar approximant, but it can also be a flap or a trill. Unlike in other rhotic varieties of English, Scottish English lacks r-coloured vowels. This means that vowels followed by the alveolar approximant do not merge. They are both pronounced separately.

Many dialects of English have r-coloured vowels. They include Canadian English, American English and Irish English. In these dialects, the vowel sounds are modified by the alveolar approximant in the same syllable and thereby create a single, distinct sound. The quality of the approximant is present throughout the duration of the vowel.

In Scottish English, however, the consonant never merges. In traditional varieties, it is a flap or a trill, but now many speakers use an approximant. The result is that the number of segments is different. For example, in varieties of English with r-coloured vowels, the word bird has three segments. However, in Scottish English it has four.

The alveolar approximant is a common consonant of English. However, only rhotic dialects of English use it in all positions. In non-rhotic dialects, it is not produced in the syllable coda. Many rhotic varieties have r-coloured vowels. However, even though most varieties of Scottish English are rhotic, it is a dialect that does not have r-coloured vowels.

French Labialized Palatal Approximant

French has a sound that does not exist in English and many other languages. It is the labialized palatal approximant. The places of articulation are the lips and the palate.

Words with the labialized palatal approximant include huit (eight), minuit (midnight), pluie (rain), huile (oil) and cuisse (thigh). To produce the labial palatal approximant, two constrictions are needed. One is the tongue on the palate, and the other is rounding of the lips. The labialized palatal approximant is also known as the labiopalatal approximant.

The labialized palatal approximant is used in French. It is relatively rare among the lnaguages of the world. Other languages that have the labialized palatal approximant include Breton, Mandarin and Occitan.

Labiovelar Approximant in North and West Jutlandic

The labiovelar approximant is very common in the Danish dialects of North Jutlandic and West Jutlandic. In fact, it often replaces the voiced labiodental fricative of standard Danish. Here is a list of ten words with a labiodental approximant in North and West Justlandic:

håndwærk/håndværk (handicraft)

hwem/hvem (who)

wa/hvad (what)

wæj/vej (way)

wæn/ven (friend)

wærd/værdi (value)

wærsom/varsom (careful)

wæst/vest (west)

wår/hvor (where)

wåwn/vogn (wagon)

The dialects of North and West Jutland are known for their extensive use of /w/. It occurs in many words with /v/ in Standard Danish. The /w/ also occurs in Standard Danish, but only in the syllable coda. In North and West Jutlandic, however, it is also very common in the syllable onset.