Pronunciation of Infinitives and Plurals in Dutch

The pronunciation of Dutch infinitives and plurals varies. Though all infinitives and the majority of Dutch plurals end with -en, they have different pronunciations. These differences are based on the dialect.

Many Dutch plurals end with -en. Examples include huizen (houses), tassen (cups) and vrienden (friends). The infinitive marker is also -en. It appears in the infinitives drinken (drink), eten (eat) and schrijven (write). 

In Belgium and the southern Netherlands, it is common to pronoun the -en of infinitives and plurals as a schwa and alveolar nasal. Unlike in the Dutch of cities such as Amsterdam and The Hague, the nasal is retained. The ending thus consists of two segments.

In the western and central Netherlands, it is common to drop the nasal and only pronounce the schwa. The result is that only one segment is articulated. The word-final nasal is not pronounced.

In the northern and eastern Netherlands, the nasal is retained but it is syllabic. This means that the schwa is not pronounced. The nasal is not in the syllable coda but in the nucleus. 

In the western and central Netherlands the nasal is dropped, but in the northern and eastern Netherlands, the schwa is dropped. This affects the syllabification of infinitives and plurals. In those areas where the nasal is dropped, the word tassen (cups) can be syllabified tɑ.sə and in those areas where the nasal is syllabic, the same word can be syllabified to tɑs.n̩. The syllabic nasal forms its own syllable.

The infinitive marker and regular plural marker of Dutch is -en. This has three different pronunciations. They depend on the dialect. In Belgium and the southern Netherlands it consists of a schwa and nasal. In the western and central Netherlands, the nasal is not pronounced, and in the eastern and northern Netherlands the ending is realized as a syllabic nasal.

Poem (The Moon)

The Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson wrote the poem The Moon. It is short but full of meaning. Here it is:

The Moon

The moon has a face like the clock in the hall,

She shines on thieves on the garden wall,

On streets and fields and harbour quays,

And birdies asleep in the forks of the trees.

The squalling cat and the squeaking mouse,

The howling dog by the door of the house,

The bat that lies in bed at noon,

All love to be out by the light of the moon.

But all of the things that belong to the day

Cuddle to sleep to be out of her way;

And flowers and children close their eyes

Till up in the morning the sun shall arise.

The poem The Moon consists of three verses with four stanzas each. The rhyme scheme is aabb ccdd eeff. Robert Louis Stevenson uses personification throughout the poem. The moon has a face, many things belong to the day and want to be out of the moon's way, and flowers close their eyes. Though the poem is short, it is full of imagery and meaning.

Meidling L

One of the most distintive accents of Vienna is associated with the district of Meidling. In standard German, the lateral is alveolar and is not velarized. The Meidling L, however, is apicodental and velarized. It is pronounced with the tongue tip rather than the tongue blade. The velarization of the lateral occurs in languages such as Russian, English and Dutch.

The German words elf (eleven), Kleid (dress) Leben (life) schnell (fast) and Stahl (steel) are pronounced with an alveolar lateral in Standard German. However, in the Meidling accent, they are pronounced with a velarized apicodental lateral. The lateral velar occurs in both the syllable onset and coda. It is not considered standard pronunciation.

The accent of Vienna is distinct from that of Standard German. However, the accent of Meidling is also a distinct accent of Viennese German. The lateral associated with Meidling forms part of the basilect of Viennese German.

Pronunciation of /r/ in Liverpool English

The accent of Liverpool has many features which distinguish it from others. Though the accent is non-rhotic, the pronounciation of pre-vocalic /r/ is often a flap. This is also true in onset clusters and intervocalic position.

In the accent of Liverpool the /r/ is often flapped in the following words:

agreement

brush

dry

free

horror

orange

proud

sorry

train

very

The /r/ can be pronounced in many ways. In non-rhotic accents of English, it is either deleted or pronounced as a schwa in the syllable-coda. For other positions, it is often an alveolar approximant, but in the Liverpool accent, it is often realized as an alveolar flap.

Order of Masculine and Feminine Nouns in Binomial Phrases

The order of many binomial phrases is fixed. This is the case with binomial phrases such as come and go, black and white and here or there. This also applies to binomial phrases with masculine and feminine nouns.

In English, many binomial phrases place the masculine noun first. Consider the following phrases:

boys and girls

husband and wife

king and queen

men and women

prince and princess

However, English also has many binomial phrases  which place the feminine noun first. Consider the following:

aunt and uncle

bride and bridegroom

ladies and gentlemen

mother and father

niece and nephew

With names, it is customary to place the masculine noun first. This is the case with John and Mary, Romeo and Juliet and Mr. and Mrs. Smith.

The order of masculine and feminine nouns in binomial phrases cannot be predicted. However, the masculine noun is given first with names and with nobility. It is also often the case that the shorter word precedes the longer one. Nevertheless, the order of masculine and feminine nouns in binomial phrases is usually predetermined.   

Optional Pleonastic Subject

In English the word it is often a pleonastic subject. This means that it has no real meaning. It merely occupies subject position. However, in certain English sentences, the pleonastic subject is optional.

The sentence It is raining contains a pleonastic subject. Here the pronoun it merely serves to introduce the sentence. Compare this to the Spanish sentence Está lloviendo. Here the subject is empty and the sentence consists of the auxiliary verb and present participle.

English has an optional pleonastic subject in sentences which begin with the words today, tomorrow and yesterday. Here are examples:

Today it is rainy.

Today is rainy.

Tomorrow it will be my birthday.

Tomorrow will be my birthday.

Yesterday it was a beautiful day.

Yesterday was a beautiful day.

The deletion of the pleonastic subject does not occur with participles. It is possible in the sentence Today is rainy, but cannot be deleted in the sentence Today it is raining. The adjective rainy must be used with deletion of the pleonastic subject.

The pleonastic subject it occurs in many sentences. It has no real meaning because it does not replace a noun. In certain sentences, the pleonastic subject is optional and can be deleted.

Dutch Letter Combination OE

The Dutch letter combination oe is pronounced [u]. Many Dutch words with the letter combination oe have the letter u in German. The Dutch letter u represents a high front rounded vowel and is pronounced as in French. The following Dutch words with the letter combination oe have the letter u in German:

bloed Blut (blood)

boek Buch (book)

genoeg genug (enough)

goed gut (good)

hoed hut (hat)

koe Kuh (cow)

koek Kuchen (cake)

moeder Mutter (mother)

stoel Stuhl (chair)

voet Fuẞ (foot)

In Dutch the sound [u] is represented by the letters oe. This is not the case in other Germanic languages. In German, a closely related language, the letter u appears in many words which have the letters oe in Dutch.

Traditional Weight Divisions of Boxing

The sport of boxing has weight divisions. Though today the sport has as many as 17 weight divisions, the traditional number of divisions was eight. They were established so that smaller boxers would not have to compete against much bigger boxers.

The eight traditional weight divisions of boxing and the weight limits  are the following:

flyweight (51 kg)

bantamweight (53.5 kg)

featherweight (57 kg)

lightweight (61 kg)

welterweight (67 kg)

middleweight (72.5 kg)

cruiserweight (91 kg)

heavyweight ( over 91 kg)

The heightweight division does not have a weight limit. However, boxers should be at least 91 kilograms to compete in the division. Boxers sometimes lose or gain weight to compete in other divisions.

Chemical Names of Substances

The chemical names of substances are not always so familiar. However, many common substances can be identified by their chemical formulas and chemical names. Here is a short list:

anti-freeze (ethylene glycol)

chalk (calcium carbonate)

diamond (carbon crystal)

ferrum (iron)

lye (sodium hydroxide)

potash (potassium carbonate)

quartz (silicon dioxide)

salt (sodium chloride)

sugar (sucrose)

water (dihydrogen monoxide)

Many substances are not so well-known by their chemical names. Their chemical names identify their composition. The chemical name for water, dihydrogen monoxide, tells us that it has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Optimal Word Length For Communication

Languages are governed by universal principles. One is that all languages use a combination of vowels and consonants, and another is that all languages have grammar. A linguistic universal is that frequent words tend to be short. This is for ease of communication.

Frequent words which tend to be short include function words such as articles, prepositions and conjunctions and also pronouns and adverbs of time. The English articles a, an and the are monosyllabic. The conjunctions and, or and but are also monosyllabic as well as adverbs such as now and soon. The English personal pronouns are all monosyllabic: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, we, us, they, them. This is not only true in English but in many other languages.

It is common for languages to optimize communication by employing relatively short words for frequent use. The English adverbs of affirmation and negation, yes and no, are both monosyllabic. This is also the case in many other languages. Words which are used frequently tend to be short in all languages. This is one of the universal principles of languages.

Affixes in English Word Formation

Affixes are a key part of word formation in English. The process of adding affixes to words is affixation. Here are twenty words with the adverbial suffix -ly:

academically

accidentally

automatically

basically

dramatically

emotionally

genetically

historically

logically

magically

musically

nationally

organically

positionally

rationally

realistically

romantically

specifically

structurally

theoretically

Let us illustrate the different parts of each word:

academically academ(y) + ic + al + ly

accidentally accident + al + ly

automatically automat(e) + ic + al + ly

basically bas(e) + ic + al + ly

dramatically drama + tic + al + ly

emotionally emot(e) + ion + al + ly

genetically gene + tic + al + ly

historically histor(y) + ic + al + ly

logically logic + al + ly

magically mag(e) + ic + al + ly

musically mus(e) + ic + al + ly

nationally nation + al + ly

organically organ + ic + al + ly

positionally posit + ion + al + ly

rationally rat(e) + ion + al + ly

realistically real + ist + ic + al + ly

romantically roman(ce) + tic + al + ly

specifically specif(y) + ic + al + ly

structurally structur(e) + al + ly

theoretically theor(y) + etic + al + ly

Though all the words end with the suffix -ly, they do not always share the same number of parts. For example, organically can be divided into four parts, but accidentally can only be divided into three. The word realistically is divided into five. Certain forms such as *automatical and *basical are never used. The examples illustrate that affixation is a very important part of word formation in English.

Finnish Question Particle

The Finnish question particle is ko/kö. The variant kö is used with front rounded and low front vowels. It is an enclitic and is used to form yes-no questions. The question particle is also used to form indirect questions.

The sentence He/she is here is Hän on täällä. To ask Is he/she here? the question particle is added. In Finnish Is he/she here is Onko hän täällä?. The particle is attached to the verb. Unlike in many other languages, the sentence and the question have the same intonation. The difference between the sentence and question is the inversion of the subject and verb and also the suffixation of the question particle to the verb.

In addition to yes-no questions, the question particle is also used in the formation of indirect questions. The indirect question I don't know if he's/she's coming is En tiedä, tuleeko hän. Here the Finnish question particle corresponds to the English conjunction if. The pronoun hän (he/she) is placed after the verb. This order is the opposite of that of English.

The variant -kö is used in the question Ymmärsitkö, mitä minä kysyin?. This means Did you understand what I asked? The pronoun sinä (you) can be omitted.

Unlike in English, Finnish uses a question particle to form yes-no questions and indirect questions. Finnish does not use intonation to indicate a question. The intonation of the Finnish statement and question are the same. 

Double Consonants in Italian

Double consonants are common in Italian. They are also common in French, but in French consonant length is not phonemic. The French word femme (woman) is pronounced [fam]. In Italian consonant length is phonemic.

The following examples illustrate that consonant length is phonemic in Italian:

capello (hair) cappello (hat)

fato (fate) fatto (fate)

pala (shovel) palla (ball)

sete (thirst) sette (seven)

Many Italian words with double consonants have single consonants in other Romance languages. Here are examples with words in Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese:

(academy) accademia académie academia academia

(cat) gatto chat gato gato

(cold) freddo froid frío frio

(four) quattro quatre cuatro quatro

(insect) insetto insecte insecto inseto

(mouth) bocca bouche boca boca

(seven) sette sept siete sete

(sleep) sonno sommeil sueño sono

(soup) zuppa soupe sopa sopa

(year) anno an año anho

Double consonants are also known as geminates and are very common in Italian. French also has many double consonants, but in French they are neither long nor phonemic. In many cases, Italian words with double consonants correspond to words with single consonants in other Romance languages.

Genetics

Genetics is a branch of biology which studies genes and heredity Though heredity had been studied for many years, Gregor Mendel was the first to study genetics scientifically. Genetics overlaps with many other areas such as agriculture and medicine.

Genes are composed of DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid. They are most often found in the nucleus of cells. The human body has approximately 37 trillion cells. Inside each cell there are between 20,000 to 25,000 genes. 

Each species of plants and animals has a set number of chromosones. Humans have 46 chromosones arranged into 23 pairs. They are found in the nucleus of the cell. The sex chromosones are X and Y. Females have the pair XX and males have the pair XY.

The complete set of genes in a cell or organism is the genome. The Human Genome Project contributed detailed information about the function, organization and structure of the complete set of human genes. The project began in 1990 and ended in 2003.

Question Mark With Quotation Marks

The question mark can appear inside quotation marks or outside. When the entire phrase is a question, the question mark goes outside. With a quotation that is a question, the question mark goes inside the quotation marks. Let us provide examples.

In the following example, the quotation is a question. Did the teacher say "You have to study harder"? The teacher's exact words were "You have to study harder". As a result, the question mark goes outside the quotation marks.

However, in this example, the quotation contains a question. He whispered "Do you need this book?" Since the quotation contains a question, the question mark must go inside the quotation marks.

With quotations that contain a question, the question mark is written inside the quotation marks. However, with quotations that do not contain a question, the question mark is written outside. The placement of the question mark is important because it conveys a difference in meaning.

German Suffix Variants

The German suffix -heit is very productive. It is added to adjectives to derive nouns. The word schön (beautiful) combines with -heit to produce Schönheit (beauty). Likewise, neu (new) combines with -heit to produce Neuheit (novelty) and Rein (pure) with -heit to produce Reinheit (purity). However, the suffix also has the variant -keit. This variant occurs after words with the affixes -bar, -ig, -lich and -sam.

The variant -keit occurs in words such as Arbeitslösigkeit (Unemployment) Einsamkeit (loneliness), Möglichkeit (possibility) and Sichtbarkeit (Visibility). The word Einsamkeit consists of the root Ein and the affixes -sam and -keit. Here we call illustrate the meaning of the three units:

ein (one)

einsam (lonely)

Einsamkeit (loneliness)

The suffix variant -heit has wider distribution than -keit. It is the underlying form from which -keit is derived. The suffix variants can also be classified as allomorphs.

In other Germanic languages, the German suffix -heit/-keit is very similar. Here are examples with three words:

freedom

Freiheit (German)

vrijheid (Dutch)

frihet (Swedish)

frihed (Danish)

frihet (Norwegian)

possibility

Möglichkeit (German)

mogelijkheid (Dutch)

möjlighet (Swedish)

mulighed (Danish)

mulighet (Norwegian)

safety

Sicherheit (German)

zekerheid (Dutch)

säkerhet (Swedish)

sikkerhed (Danish)

sikkerhet (Norwegian)

In contrast to German, the other languages only have one form for the underlying suffix -heit. Many Norwegian dialects use the suffix -heit rather than -het. The German suffix -heit is very productive and often corresponds to -ity/-ty in English. 

Six Types of Animals

Animals can be classified in many ways. However, scientists classify them into six main groups. They are mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates and fish.

The group of mammals includes humans. All mammals have hair or fur, and they produce milk through their mammary glands. Mammals and birds are the animal classes that are warm-blooded.

The group of birds is very diverse. However, all birds have two legs and can lay eggs. Most of them can fly.

Unlike mammals and birds, reptiles are cold-blooded. They are often covered in scales and rely on their surrounding environment to regulate their body temperature. They have a spine and are thus vertebrates.

Amphibians have moist skin with no scales. Because they are permeable, they are very sensitive to toxins. One key characteristic of amphibians is a life cycle that include larval stages.

The animal kingdom can be divided into two large groups, vertebrates and invertebrates. Invertebrates are animals that have no spinal cord. This includes jellyfish and insects.

Fish are aquatic animals. Their main characteristic is the presence of gills that enables them to breathe underwater. They all have fins that help them to swim.

All animals can be classified into six main groups. Two of these, birds and mammals are warm-blooded. The group of invertebrates lacks a spinal cord. The other five groups, however, all have one.

Small Units of Length and Time

Length can be measured in units such as metres and kilometres. They are part of the metric system. In the imperial system, units such as feet and miles are used. Time can be measured in units such as minutes and hours, and they are neither part of the metric nor the imperial system.

In the metric system, units such as centimetres and millimetres are used for small lengths. However, smaller units can also be expressed. A micrometre is a very small unit, one millionth of a metre, and a nanometre is one billionth of  a metre.

Time can also be measured in very small units. A millisecond is one thousandth of a second. The time of 9.375 seconds consists of nine full seconds and 375 milliseconds. A microsecond is one millionth of a second and a nanosecond is one billionth.

Very small units of length and time can be expressed with the prefixes -micro and -nano. The prefix -micro is used in microseconds and micrometres and means one millionth. For even smaller units, the prefix -nano can be used as in nanoseconds and nanometres. This means one billionth.

Contronyms

Contronyms are words with opposite meanings. The meaning of these words can be understood from the context. Ten words which are contronyms are the following:

bill

dust

left

off

out 

rent

sanction

screen

seed

transparent

The following sentences illustrate that these words have opposite meanings.

1) The smallest American bill is $1.

     I'll send you the bill.

2)  I need to dust the kitchen cupboards.

     The last step is to dust the cake with icing sugar.

3) There are few people left.

    Everyone has left the party.

4) Please turn off the light.

    The alarm went off.

5) The moon is out.

    The candle has gone out.

6) I want to rent an apartment.

    He agreed to rent him the apartment.

7) If he continues the violate the agreement, he will be sanctioned with a heavy fine.

    Everyone sanctioned his efforts to reduce crime.

8) You should screen your face from the sun.

     The movie theatre will screen the movie this evening.

9) I need to seed the tomatoes.

    The farmer plans to seed his field tomorrow morning.

10) Her lie was transparent.

      He has a transparent bottle.

Contronyms are words with opposite meanings. Though the meaning is usually clear from context, this is sometimes not the case with a single sentence In the sentence He was sanctioned, more context is needed to clarify if the person was punished or supported. Contronyms are also known as antagonyms and auto-antonyms.

Consonant Clusters in English Onsets and Codas

English permits many consonant clusters in the syllable onset and coda. This is in contrast to many other languages. However, the consonant clusters in the onset and coda are not identical.

English allows a maximum of three consonants in the onset. Examples include scream, splash, spray, square and stripe. In these words the first consonant is always /s/, the voiceless alveolar fricative.

The coda also allows many consonant clusters. Here the maximum number of consonants is four. This is the case in the word twelfths.

The following words have three consonants in the coda:

asked

barked

darts

eighths

faults

hands

parks

shelves

shields

tastes 

In non-rhotic varieties of English, words such as barked and parks have only two consonants in the coda. However, if one classifies the vowel as an r-coloured vowel, the number of consonants is also  two. The final consonant in the illustrated words is either the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ or the voiceless alveolar plosive /t/.

It is clear that English allows many consonants in both the syllable onset and the syllable coda. If the onset has three syllables, the first consonant must be /s/. However, this is not the case in the coda. The permissible consonant clusters in the onset and in the coda are different.

Verbs Negated With Not

Most English verbs are negated with the auxiliary verb do and the adverb of negation not. They can be contracted to don't. However, a few verbs follow a different pattern. They are negated in the same manner as modal verbs. The verb is followed by the adverb not.

The adverb not is used to negate modals. Examples include can not, may not, might not, must not and should not. This is also the pattern with verbs such as guess, hope and suppose. Compare the sentences I do not know and I hope not. The second sentence is negated in the same way as modal verbs.

The sentence I am afraid can be negated in two different ways. If the meaning is the equivalent of I have no fear, the negation is I am not afraid. On the other hand, if the sentence has the meaning of I regret it, the correct negation is I'm afraid not..

Examples can be given to illustrate the difference. In response to the question Are you afraid of heights, the answer might be No, I'm not afraid of heights. However, in response to the question Can you attend the meeting?, the answer might be I'm afraid not. This expresses regret that the response is negative.

Though English verbs are usually negated with do and not before the verb, not all follow this pattern. Verbs such as guess, hope and suppose are negated in the same manner as modal verbs. They are thus negated with the adverb not following the verb. 

Comparison of Danish and Norwegian Plurals

Danish and Norwegian are classified as North Germanic languages. They are closely related, especially in their written forms. However, plurals in the two languages sometimes differ.

Many plurals are identical in the two languages. Examples include blomster (flowers), dyr (animals) and ord (words). Nevertheless, many plurals are different.

Here is a list of ten plurals which differ in the two languages. The word on the left is Danish and the one on the right is Norwegian:

blade blader (leaves)

børn barn (children)

dage dager (days)

fugle fugler (birds)

hatte hatter (hats)

heste hester (horses)

hunde hunder (dogs)

huse hus (houses)

knive kniver (knives)

lande land (countries)

Many Danish plurals with the ending -e have the ending -er in Norwegian. This pattern occurs with plurals such as dage/dager and knive/kniver. A few Norwegian plurals which are the same in singular and plural have an -e in Danish. This is the case with hus/huse and land/lande. With the plurals børn/barn, the Norwegian plural is the same as the singular, but the Danish plural exhibits a change in the vowel.

Though Danish and Norwegian plurals are often identical, they can differ. Many Danish plurals with -e have -er in Norwegian. In Danish, -e is a common plural ending, but in Norwegian it is not. Plural endings in Norwegian are thus more regular than they are in Danish.

Unreleased Plosives

In English word-final plosives can be released or unreleased. The two articulations are not phonemic. Whether one releases the consonant or not, the meaning is the same. In other positions of the word, the consonant is always released.

Word-final plosives do not need to be released in English, but in French they do. However, in Vietnamese and Cantonese, word-final plosives must be unreleased. The rules for released and unreleased plosives vary from one language to another.

In words such as cap, look and red, the word-final plosive may be unreleased. However, in word-initial position such as big, cook and time, the plosive is always released. Word-initial plosives have greater airflow and are more perceptually salient.

English plosives can be unreleased at the end of the word. The unreleased articulation is especially common in casual conversation. At the beginning of the word, however, English plosives are always released.

English Words With Greek and Latin Roots

Many English words have Greek and Latin roots. These roots are not only present in English, but in many other languages. Though English is a Germanic language, the influence of Greek and Latin is significant.

The following words have Greek roots:

auto (self) autobiography, automobile

chron (time) chronic, chronology

micro (small) microbe, microscope

nym (name) antonym, synonym

pseudo (false) pseudonym, pseudoscience

The following words have Latin roots:

bene (good) benefactor, benevolent

cent (one hundred) century, percent

mater (mother) maternal, maternity

multi (many) multicultural, multimedia

pater (father) paternal, paternity

The influence of Greek and Latin is evident in English. They were the languages of two empires, the Greek and Roman. Though these empires no longer exist, the number of  English words with Greek and Latin roots is nevertheless extensive.

Vowel Deletion in Swedish

The basic syllable type is CV. As a result, many languages delete vowels to preserve this structure. This is certainly the case in Swedish. Let us look at examples.

The plural forms of flicka (girl) and klocka (clock) are flickor (girls) and klockor (clocks). The final vowel of flicka and klocka is deleted. It is the vowel on the left.

However, with the definite article, the vowel on the right deletes. This can be exemplified with bro (bridge) and öga (eye). The definite article for singular nouns is -en or -et. The suffix -en is for common nouns, and -et is for neuter nouns. The noun bro has common gender, and öga has neuter gender.

The Swedish word bron means the bridge, and the word ögat means the eye. Vowel deletion occurs, but in this case the vowel on the right deletes. 

One explanation for the different types of vowel deletion may be connected to the variants of the definite article and the plural. The definite article of singular nouns has two forms, -en and -et. Even with vowel deletion, the two are easily distinguished.

However, the plural marker has more variants. The plural of dag (day) is dagar. One of the plural variants in Swedish is -ar. It could be that in words such as flicka, right-vowel deletion is needed to preserve the plural variant -or and thus avoid confusion with -ar.

Vowel deletion is very common, and it can be analyzed as a syllable structure process. Swedish has two types of vowel deletion, one which deletes vowels on the left and another which deletes vowels on the right. Left vowel deletion occurs with noun plurals, and right vowel deletion occurs with singular nouns and the definite article suffix.

Gregorian Calendar

The Gregorian Calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. It is the calendar that is used in most of the world. Prior to the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar, the Julian Calendar was in use. One of the changes introduced by the Gregorian Calendar was a small reduction in the number of leap years.

Although the Gregorian Calendar is named after Pope Gregory XIII, it is an adaptation of a calendar designed by Luigi Lilio. He was an Italian astronomer, doctor and philosopher. He died in 1576, six years before his calendar was officially introduced.

The Gregorian Calendar replaced the Julian Calendar. Before the Julian Calendar, the Roman Calendar was used. Other calendars include the Persian and Mayan.

Order of German Verbs

German word order is different from that of English. Two differences are German V2 movement and the verb at the end of the dependent clause. However, German also has sentences in which many verbs are placed at the end of the sentence.

German V2 movement places the verb after the first constituent of the sentence. In German the sentence Today he can't come is Heute kann er nicht kommen. The verb kann (can) follows the adverb heute (today).

German places verbs at the end of dependent clauses. The sentence I know that she is sick is Ich weiẞ, dass sie krank ist in German. In the German sentence, the verb ist (is) is placed at the end.

Many verbs can be placed at the end of the German sentence. This is the German equivalent of It is true that I should have phoned you: Es ist wahr, dass ich dich hätte anrufen sollen. In the German sentence three consecutive verbs are placed at the end.

The sentence Peter will have to be invited also places many verbs at the end. In German the sentence is Peter wird eingeladen werden müssen. The German sentence places four verbs at the end, but in contrast to English, the past participle eingeladen (invited) is the third word of the sentence.

It is clear that German word order can differ significantly from that of English. Many German sentences place the verb at the end. It is also common to place a string of verbs in sentence-final position.

Vowel Deletion in Italian

Vowel deletion is extensive in Italian. It is especially common in casual speech, but it also occurs in the written language. As in French, Italian vowel deletion occurs with articles and prepositions, but it also occurs with nouns, adjectives and prepositions.

Italian vowel deletion occurs with articles such as l'automobile (the automobile). This combines the feminine article la and the noun automobile. It also occurs with pronouns such as in L'ho visto (I have seen him). This combines the pronoun lo (him) with the verb visto (seen). To compare, in French these examples are l'auto and Je l'ai vu. They combine la and auto and also le and ai.

However, Italian vowel deletion occurs in many other instances. Here are examples:

mezz'ora (half hour)

nient'altro (nothing else)

quest'anno (this year)

senz'acqua (without water) 

trent'anni (thirty years)

These phrases combine mezza and ora, niente and altro, questo and anno, senza and acqua, and trenta and anni. The deletion of the vowel restructures the sequence of two vowels to one of consonant and vowel. This sequence is very common in not only Italian but in many languages.

The process of vowel deletion is very common. In Italian it is extensive in speech and in writing. The deletion of the vowel occurs not only with articles and pronouns but also with other grammatical categories.

Schwa in Catalan

Catalan shares many similarities with Spanish. However, the vowel system is not identical. Spanish has five vowels phonemes but Catalan has seven. As in Italian, Catalan has closed and open mid vowels represented by the orthographic e and o. In addition, Catalan has a schwa.

The schwa of Catalan is represented by the orthographic a or e. It is present in the words pare (father) and casa (house). However, the schwa is not restricted to word-final position. In Barcelona, the schwa occurs in every unstressed syllable, the first, second and fourth.

The schwa often occurs in unstressed syllables of Catalan. This is a vowel which does not occur in Spanish. Though the schwa is not a vowel phoneme of Catalan, it occurs in many words.

Loss of Vowel Harmony in Estonian

Estonian is a Finno-Ugric language. However, unlike in Finnish and Hungarian, the two most widely-spoken Finno-Ugric languages, Estonian has lost vowel harmony. It is thus more innovative than Finnish and Hungarian. 

Vowel harmony often involves dimensions such as backness, rounding, height and advanced tongue root. In Finnish vowel harmony is based on backness. In Hungarian, however, backness and rounding are both important.

Though Finnish and Hungarian both have vowel harmony, Finnish is much more closely related to Estonian. This is clear from their vocabulary. In Finnish, the word tänään means today. The vowels are low front unrounded with quantitative length. The first vowel is short, and the second is long. However, in Estonian the same word is täna. Vowel harmony is not present because the first word is low front unrounded and the second is low back rounded. The vowels do not agree in backness or in rounding.

Another example is the Finnish word kysymys, which means question. The vowel is high front rounded. In Estonian, the same word is küsimus. The vowels in the word are high front rounded, high front unrounded and high back rounded. Unlike in the Finnish word, the vowels neither agree in backness nor in rounding.

Though Estonian has lost vowel harmony, it restricts the vowels [æ], [ø], [y] and [o] to the initial syllable. They rarely occur in other syllables of the word. Estonian once had vowel harmony, but no longer does. This loss of vowel harmony exemplifies language change.

Spanish Vowel Sequences

Though Spanish has only five vowel phonemes, it has many vowel sequences. Vowels often combine to form diphthongs, but many vowel sequences resist diphthongization. Spanish has far more vowel sequences than English.

Here are examples of Spanish vowel sequences that are in hiatus and that are diphthongs:

aeropuerto (airport)

anchoa (anchovy)

deuda (debt)

feo (ugly)

héroe (hero)

heroína (heroine)

marea (tide)

muy (very)

país (country)

río (river)

Here is the analysis of the vowel sequences:

aeropuerto = a.e.ro.puer.to (5 syllables)

anchoa = an.cho.a (3 syllables)

deuda = deu.da (2 syllables)

feo = fe.o (2 syllables)

héroe = hé.ro.e (3 syllables)

heroína =he.ro.í.na (4 syllables)

marea = ma.re.a (3 syllables)

muy = muy (1 syllable)

país = pa.ís (2 syllables)

río = rí.o (2 syllables)

Though Spanish has few vowel phonemes, it allows many vowel sequences. They can combine into diphthongs to form one syllable or remain in hiatus and thus form separate syllables. The high vowels [i] and [u] are the ones that most often form diphthongs.

Pronunciation of Dutch Mid Vowels

The pronunciation of Dutch mid vowels varies. In northern Dutch, the mid vowels of southern Dutch and Belgian Dutch are diphthongized. In the southern Netherlands and Belgium they are thus monophthongs. This is a noticeable difference between the pronunciation of the northern Netherlands and the pronunciation of the southern Netherlands and Belgium. 

The mid front unrounded vowel that is pronounced [e] in Belgium and the southern Netherlands is pronounced [eI] in the northern Netherlands. The mid back vowel that is pronounced [o] in Belgium and the southern Netherlands is pronounced [oʊ] in the northern Netherlands. The mid front rounded vowel that is pronounced [ø] in Belgium and the southern Netherlands is the diphthong [øy] in the northern Netherlands.

Here are words that differ in pronunciation in Belgium and the southern Netherlands from the pronunciation of the northern Netherlands:

een (one)

thee (tea)

zee (sea)

boot (boat)

hoop (hope)

zoon (son)

heup (hip}

leuk (nice)

neus (nose)   

In the northern Netherlands, the diphthong [øy] is pronounced [ø] before the rhotic consonant. For example, the word deur (door) is pronounced with a mid front rounded vowel in both varieties of Dutch. However,  a number of northern Dutch speakers produce a high back rounded lax vowel. Nevertheless, all speakers produce a monophthong in this environment.

Dutch pronunciation can vary significantly from one dialect to another. One difference between the pronunciation of the northern Netherlands and that of the southern Netherlands and Belgium concerns that of diphthongs and monophthongs. Two mid front vowels and one mid back vowel of Belgium and the southern Netherlands are diphthongs in the northern Netherlands.

Structural Ambiguity with Ellipsis

The rules of sentence formation allow ellipsis. This is possible because the deleted information is understood. However, this can result in ambiguity.

Consider the following examples:

Mark and Victor or Linda will go.

We'll have bacon or ham and eggs.

The old man and woman have left.

It costs four or five hundred dollars.

These are the possible interpretations:

[Mark] and [Victor or Linda] will go.

[Mark and Victor] or [Linda] will go.

We'll have [bacon] or [ham and eggs].

We'll have [bacon or ham] and eggs.

The [old man] and [woman] left.

The old [man and woman] left.

It costs [4] or [500 dollars].

It costs [400 or [500 dollars].

Without ellipsis, the sentences are not ambiguous. For example, no ambiguity occurs in the sentence Mark will go and Victor or Linda will go. Though the sentences with ellipsis are ambiguous, one interpretation is more common than the other.

In the first example, the interpretation [Mark] and [Victor or Linda] is more common because most hearers assume that the choice is between one person or another. With the second example, the most common interpretation is [bacon or ham] and [eggs] because most hearers assume that the meal will include two items. In the third example, the interpretation The old [man and woman] is the most common because most hearers assume that both the man and the woman are old. The interpretation [400 or 500 dollars] is the most probably in the final example because 400 and 500 are much closer in value than 4 and 500.

Ellipsis is very common in sentence formation. However, the uses of ellipsis can create ambiguity. Nevertheless, one interpretation tends to be more common than any other.

Vowel Quality

Two features of vowel quality that are used to contrast one vowel with another are height and backness. The vowel of he is high front, and the vowel of to is high back. In the word cat, the vowel is low front. However, other features can also be used to contrast vowel quality.

Four other features are rhotacization, rounding, ATR and nasalization. Height, backness and rhotacization reflect auditory properties, and the other three reflect articulatory properties with acoustic properties that differ from vowel to vowel.

Lip rounding tends to lower the second formant, but in the case of high front vowels it is primarily the third formant that is lowered. ATR and nasalization affect different formants in different vowels. The vowel of red is a mid front unrounded lax vowel. However, instead of the term lax, the term -ATR can also be used. The quality of height precedes the qualities of backness, rounding and ATR. The term ATR means advanced tongue root. The vowel of seat is +ATR, and the vowel of sit is -ATR.

Rhotacization is found in rhotic vowels of English. The word bird has a rhotic vowel in most varieties of American English, but a non-rhotic vowel in most varieties of British English. English has vowels that are ATR and -ATR, but many languages, i.e. Spanish, do not. English has nasalized vowels such as the vowel of sand, but the vowel is not fully nasalized because the nasal is also articulated. However, in languages such as French, vowels are often fully nasalized. The French word vin (wine) has a fully nasalized vowel. The nasal segment is thus not articulated.

Vowel quality is an important feature of vowels. The two features that are most associated with vowel quality are height and backness. In the articulatory description of vowels, height is given before backness and rounding.

Spanish Stressed and Unstressed Personal Object Pronouns

Spanish has two sets of personal object pronouns. They are stressed and unstressed. This distinction is connected to sentence stress. Though both words are stressed in isolation, the one which occurs at the end of the sentence is stressed. 

In English the object pronoun me occurs in the sentences My brother helped me and The present is for me. The position of the object pronoun is the same in English. It occurs at the end of the sentence.

However, in Spanish the sentences are Mi hermano me ayudó and El regalo es para mí. The words me and mí both mean me. The difference is that the first one is unstressed and the second is stressed. The unstressed pronoun occurs before the main verb and the stressed pronoun after the preposition.

Here are further examples of stressed and unstressed pronouns in Spanish:

Mi hermana te conoció. (My sister met you)

La pregunta es para ti. (The question is for you)

Mi primo la conoce. (My cousin knows her)

Su hermana va con ella. (Her brother is going with her)

Mi amigo lo conoce. (My friend knows him)

Su hermana está con él. (His sister is with him)

La película nos impresionó. (The movie impressed us)

Mis amigos están con nosotros. (My friends are with us)

Mis amigos los hicieron. (My friends made them)

La fiesta es para ellos. (The party is for them)

The stressed object pronouns ella, él, nosotros and ellos are also subject pronouns. Unlike English, Spanish has two sets of personal object pronouns. They occur in different positions in the sentence.

Differences in French and Spanish Syntax

French and Spanish share many similarities. They can be observed in vocabulary, grammar and syntax. However, the rules of French and Spanish syntax are not identical. Let us look at a few examples.

In Spanish negation is expressed with no before the verb phrase. The sentence Mi hijo no patina bien means My son doesn't skate well. The same sentence in French is Mon fils ne patine pas bien. French uses ne and pas to negate the verb phrase. However, in spoken French, the word ne is often dropped.

The sentence Ma soeur veut me voir means My sister wants to see me. French places the object pronoun before the infinitive. In Spanish, however, this sentence can be expressed in two ways. They are Mi hermana me quiere ver and Mi hermana quiere verme. The object pronoun can come before the main verb or after the infinitive. When it comes after the infinitive, it functions as a suffix. Both sentences are possible, but placing the object pronoun after the infinitive is considered more formal.

Another difference can be observed in the position of the subject. For example, the sentence My cousin is here is Mon cousin est ici in French. The word order is the same as in English. In Spanish, however, two sentences are possible. They are Mi primo está aquí and Está aquí mi primo. The subject can be placed at the beginning or the end of the sentence. The normal word order is at the beginning of the sentence, but to give more emphasis to the subject, it can also be placed at the end.

Though Spanish and French are related languages, they also differ in many respects. One of the big differences between them is in pronunciation. However, they also differ in their rules of syntax. French places the direct object pronoun before the infinitive, but Spanish places it before the main verb or after the infinitive.

Coda Deletion in Andalusian Spanish

Andalusian Spanish is well-known for the aspiration and also deletion of word-final /s/. This process also applies syllable-finally. However, Andalusian Spanish also deletes other coda consonants.

Word-final nasals are often dropped with nasalization of the preceding vowel. In infinitives, word-final /r/ is often dropped. In certain cases, regressive assimilation occurs and the /r/ is deleted with lengthening of the following consonant. This often occurs in words such as carne (meat) in which the /r/ is deleted and the nasal is lengthened. Coda consonants can also be dropped word-internally such as in the word doctor, which results in deletion of the /k/. 

The following words have coda consonants which are often deleted in Andalusian Spanish:

arroz (rice) 

bien (well)

cantar (to sing)

ciudad (city)

escribir (to write)

luz (light)

mitad (half)

pan (bread)

razón (reason)

seis (six)

Consonant coda deletion is very common in Andalusian Spanish. Word-final deletion of the interdental fricative, i.e., ciudad (city) is in fact common in all varieties of Spanish. Andalusian Spanish is spoken in southern Spain and exhibits extensive deletion of coda consonants.

Variation in the Swedish sj-sound

The Swedish sj-sound can be pronounced with a retroflex alveolar pronunciation or with a velar one. In other words, one pronunciation is frontal and the other is dorsal. In southern Swedish, the dorsal pronunciation is common in all instances. However, in parts of Stockholm, western Sweden, northern Sweden and Finland, the frontal pronunciation is common in all instances. In Finland, the sj- sound is frontal, but it is not retroflex. Though many speakers use either the frontal or dorsal pronunciation exclusively, most Swedes use both sounds. They are used in different environments.

The dorsal sound is common before a stressed vowel. Examples include situation, sju (seven) and sked (spoon). Though these words are spelt differently, the sound is the same. 

The frontal sound is common word-finally. Examples include dusch (shower), garage and prestige. It is also common in words which consist of a word-initial fricative and consonant. Examples include schlager (musical hit), schnitzel and Schweiz (Switzerland).

In certain words, both variants are common. This is the case with chans (chance) and kanske (maybe). It is often the case that speakers use the same variant for both words.

Many speakers use two pronunciations for the Swedish sj-sound. This sound can be spelled in many ways, and the two pronunciations are in complementary distribution. In certain words, i.e., chans (chance) and kanske (maybe), both pronunciations are very common.

Types of Disjuncts

Unlike adjuncts, disjuncts do no modify structures within the sentence. They are often placed at the beginning of the sentence. Four types of disjuncts are attitude, epistemic, point of view and style.

Attitude disjuncts express an attitude towards the proposition contained in the sentence. In the utterance Luckily, he passed his exam the proposition is he passed his exam and luckily is a comment expressed by the speaker.

Style disjuncts indicate the mode in which the sentence is uttered. For example, the speaker can be honest, open, serious, etc. In the sentence Seriously, don't tell anyone, seriously is a style disjunct.

Point of view disjuncts offer a particular perspective. The sentence Politically, the event was a great success, the adverb politically indicates that from the point of view of politics, the event was very successful.

Epistemic disjuncts communicate the speaker's assessment of the probability that a proposition is true. They are usually sentence initial. An example of a sentence with an epistemic disjunct is Perhaps tomorrow will be rainy.

Disjuncts are an important part of language. Style disjuncts do not modify the sentence at all and indicate the manner in which the speaker utters the sentence. Other disjuncts include attitude, epistemic and point of view.

Possessive Reflexives

Possessive reflexives consist of possessives such as my, his and their. In a sentence such as Janet broke her doll, it is not clear if her refers to Janet or to another female. However, with the addition of the word own, it is no longer ambiguous. In Janet broke her own doll, her refers to Janet.

In certain cases, the possessive always refers to the subject. These structures often involve movements made with a part of the body. Here are examples:

Luke stretched his neck.

The dog wagged its tail.

The students clapped their hands.

The guest crossed her legs.

The boy bit his tongue.

Structures with possessive reflexes can be ambiguous. However, this is often not the case with parts of the body. In sentences such as The dog wagged its tail, the possessive can only refer to the subject.

Translated Song (Know That I Love You)

The Norwegian group Unit 5 sings Vit At Jeg Elsker Deg. This means Know That I Love You. Here are the Norwegian lyrics along with my translation:

Vit At Jeg Elsker Deg

Vit at jeg elsker deg, forguder den du er

Og vit at jeg savner deg.

Jeg ønsker du var her.

Vi kunne bare elsket, og ikke tenkt på alt

Som engang kunne skille oss, og alt det som var galt.

Vi kunne gitt hverandre alt godt som kunne gis,

Men istedenfor så kranglet vi på småungersvis.

Men vit at jeg elsker deg, forguder den du er

Og vit at jeg savner deg.

Jeg ønsker du var her.

Det er så lett å såre, så lett å si noe galt

Men som man elsker piner man og ødelegger alt.

Se blomstene på marken, kjenn gleden i en sang,

Sett pris på alt det vakre som blir till oss engang.

Men vit at jeg elsker deg, forguder den du er

Og vit at jeg savner deg.

Jeg ønsker du var her.

Vit at jeg elsker deg, forguder den du er

Og vit at jeg savner deg.

Jeg ønsker du var her.

Know That I Love You

Know that I love you, adore who you are

And know that I miss you.

I wish you were here.

We could have just loved and not thought about all

That once could have separated us, and all that was wrong.

We could have given each other all the good that could be given,

But instead we bickered like little children.

But know that I love you, adore who you are

And know that I miss you.

I wish you were here.

It's so easy to hurt, so easy to say something wrong

But as one loves one ruins everything.

See the flowers in the field, feel the joy in a song.

Be grateful for everything beautiful that once was given to us.

But know that I love you, adore who you are

And know that I miss you.

I wish you were here.

Know that I love you, adore who you are

And know that I miss you.

I wish you were here.

 

Syllable Reduction in British English

Syllable reduction occurs in all varieties of English. The word interesting is often pronounced with two syllables rather than three. However, syllable reduction is more extensive in British English than in American English.

Many speakers of British English pronounce medicine with two syllables. In American English, however, it is always pronounced with three syllables. Another example is the word extraordinary. In American English, it has six syllables. In British English, however, it can be pronounced with five syllables, or in casual speech, with only four. To pronounce extraordinary with only four syllables, one must omit the a in extra as well as the a in ordinary.

Other words which are often pronounced with syllable reduction in British English include dictionary, military and secretary. In American English they always have four syllables. However, in British English they are often pronounced with only three.

Though syllable reduction occurs in all varieties of English, it is especially common in British English. The result is that British English has a greater distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables. Syllable reduction is even more common in casual speech.

Common English Family Names

Family names are often very descriptive. They are often the names of occupations. The following are common English family names:

Smith

Jones

Taylor

Brown

Williams

Wilson

Johnson

Davies

Robinson

Wright

The family names Smith and Taylor refer to occupations. Names such as Johnson mean John's son.  The family name Brown is a colour. Other common family names which are colours are Green and White.

Family names are often connected to occupations. The family name Taylor reflects an earlier spelling of the word tailor. The family name Jones is connected to the name John.

Difference Between Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro Accents

Brazilian Portuguese has many different accents. Two very well-known accents are those of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Though the two cities are not so far from one another, the two accents are quite different from one another.

In the accent of Rio de Janeiro, the /s/ is pronounced /ʃ/ when it occurs word-finally and when it occurs before a consonant. This is the cases with words such as seis (six) and biscoito (biscuit). In Sao Paulo, these words only have the sound /s/.

The orthographic r is also pronounced differently when it occurs in the syllable coda. In Sao Paulo, it is realized as an alveolar trill or in the case of infinitives such as cantar (to sing), the r may even be deleted. In Rio de Janeiro, however, the r is realized as a guttural sound in words such as mar (sea) and porta (door). The fricative can be a glottal fricative, velar fricative or uvular fricative.

Another difference is that in words such as arroz (rice), luz (light) and paz (peace), speakers from Rio de Janeiro diphthongize the stressed vowel. The result is that the words mas (but) and mais (more) are pronounced the same. In Sao Paulo, this diphthongization does not occur, and the words mas (but) and (mais) are pronounced distinctly.

The diphthongization only occurs with stressed vowels followed by the alveopalatal fricative. In the word casas (houses),  the stress is on the first syllable and the intervocalic s is pronounced /z/. Though the word-final s is realized as an alveopalatal fricative in Rio de Janeiro, no diphthongization occurs because the vowel is unstressed.

The accents of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro are different from one another. Notable differences include the pronunciation of s word-finally and before consonants, the pronunciation of r in the syllable-coda and the diphthongization of vowels that occurs in Rio de Janeiro. The pronunciation of s in Rio de Janeiro is the same as that of Standard European Portuguese.

Irregularities With English Numbers

To form English numbers from thirteen to nineteen, we add the word teen to the number. For multiples of ten such as sixty, we add -ty to the base. However, the pattern is not completely regular.

The numbers eleven and twelve are quite different from one and two. From thirteen to nineteen, however, we see that the numbers end with teen. The pattern is the number followed by teen. This is true for the numbers fourteen, sixteen, seventeen and nineteen. With the numbers thirteen, fifteen and eighteen, we notice that they are irregular. The number eighteen is written with only one t.

For the numbers from twenty to ninety, the ending is -ty. The numbers sixty, seventy and ninety are completely regular. However, this is not the case for twenty, thirty, forty, fifty or eighty.

English numbers follow certain patterns. From thirteen to nineteen, the ending is -teen and for twenty to ninety, the ending is -ty. A number of numbers, though, are irregular. This is common in not only English but also in other languages.

English Flapping In Syllable Coda

Many English dialects have an alveolar flap. It is especially common in the environment between a stressed vowel and unstressed vowel. Examples include city. medal and wedding. The flap can also occur between two unstressed vowels such as in reality. However, in certain instances, the flap also occurs word-finally.

The flap often occurs with words such as at, but, it and that. Consider the following examples:

He was not at all surprised.

I can't visit today, but I can visit tomorrow.

She baked it an hour ago.

I know that everyone had a good time.

In the sentences the flap occurs between two vowels. The sentences exemplify that flapping can occur across word boundaries. The words at, but, it and that do not have the flap when they are pronounced in isolation. In sentences, however, the flap can occur.

What Are Heavy?

The English poet Christina Rossetti wrote What Are Heavy? For each question of the poem, the poet gives two answers, one concrete and one metaphorical. It is a philosophical poem that is both beautiful and simple. 

What Are Heavy?

What are heavy? Sea-sand and sorrow;

What are brief? Today and tomorrow;

What are frail? Spring blossoms and youth;

What are deep? The ocean and truth.

Sound Correspondence Between Spanish and Portuguese

Spanish and Portuguese share many similarities. Many words with an o in Spanish have an ou in Portuguese. The value of the ou in Portuguese can be that of a diphthong, but many Portuguese speakers now produce a monophthong. In the case of the monophthtong, it has a higher tongue position than in Spanish.

Here are ten words which illustrate the pattern in Spanish and Portuguese:

o ou (or)

dorado dourado (golden)

oro ouro (gold)

otro outro (other)

otoño outono (autumn)

poco pouco (little)

robo roubo (robbery)

ropa roupa (clothes)

tesoro tesouro (treasure)

toro touro (bull)

Spanish and Portuguese are closely related languages. Their vocabulary is often very similar to that of Latin. This is reflected in aurum, autumna and paucus, the Latin words for gold, autumn and little.

English Dialects With Stressed Schwa

In Received Pronunciation the word butter has two distinct vowels. The first vowel is a little lower than the second. However, speakers from many parts of Wales, western England and the midlands have identical vowels. They use the schwa in both stressed and unstressed syllables.

For speakers who have stressed schwas, the following words have identical vowels:

cupboard

mother

runner

summer

supper

Identical vowels can also occur in words with more than two syllables. In the word another, the schwa is realized in every syllable. The only difference between the vowels is that the stressed one has longer duration.

In Standard English the schwa is only produced in unstressed syllables. However, a number of speakers in Wales and England also have the schwa in stressed syllables. In words such as but, cup and lunch, they use the schwa.

Poem (Tomorrow)

 I want to share my latest poem. It is a sonnet.

Tomorrow

Tomorrow always brings another day  

With early morning skies and starry nights

To open before us another way

To incredible adventures and sights.

Tomorrow always comes without delay,

Showing further surprises and delights

From beautiful nature on display

To cities with buildings of greater heights.

From each day we begin a new chapter

With new people and places on each page.

Tomorrow opens portals of treasure

As if transporting us from stage to stage.

Tomorrow arrives to meet the future,

Writing countless stories for every age.                                  

Apicoalveolar Sibilant

The apicoalveolar sibilant is also known as the voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant. It is an articulation which is used for the s in the Spanish of northern Spain and in the dialect spoken in Antioquia, Colombia. It is articulated with the tip of the tongue and is a sound that is between the /s/ of sell and the /ʃ/ of shell.

The apicoalveolar sibilant is also used in Basque, Catalan, Galician, Greek and Icelandic as well as in varieties of Dutch, Finnish, Portuguese and Swedish. It has a more retracted articulation that that of the voiceless alveolar fricative. In this respect, it is similar to retroflex fricatives. In the languages of the world, the voiceless alveolar fricative is more common.

Though the apicoalveolar sibilant is not so common, it is used extensively in Greek and Icelandic. It is also used in dialects of many languages such as Dutch and Finnish. The voiceless apicoalveolar sibilant is articulated with less airflow than the voiceless alveolar fricative.

Change in British Spelling

One of the main differences between the spelling of British English and American English is seen in words such as color/colour, favorite/favourite, flavor/flavour and neighbor/neighbour. The British spelling includes one extra letter. However, a number of British words once had this spelling but no longer do.

The following words are now spelt identically in both British English and American English:

ambassador

chancellor

emperor

error

governor

horror

mirror

superior

terror

tremor

These words were once spelt with a u. Here they are with the former spelling:

ambassadour

chancellour

emperour

errour

governour

horrour

mirrour

superiour

terrour

tremour

American English uses or in many words which have our in British English. However, many do not know that many words once had our in British English but no longer do. In this regard, American English can be considered more regular than British.

Types of Smiths

A smith is a person who makes objects from metal. Before industrialization, smiths were very important because they crafted metal objects for farming and weapons of war. Due to the importance of smiths, their occupation became a family name.

There are many kinds of smiths. Here are a few:

blacksmith  (black metals such as iron and steel)

brownsmith (brown metals such as copper and brass)

coinsmith (coins)

coppersmith (copper)

goldsmith (gold)

locksmith (locks)

silversmith (silver)

arrowsmith (arrow heads)

bladesmith (blades of swords and knives)

tinsmith (tin)

When the word smith is used in isolation, it usually refers to a blacksmith. However, smiths work with many different types of metal. They include iron, steel, gold, silver, copper and tin.

Word-Final Affricates of Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese

Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese is a major dialect of Brazilian Portuguese. It is known for the use of plosives in words such as dia (day) and tia (aunt) rather than alveopalatal affricates. Another difference is that many plurals are pronounced with word-final affricates.

The word corte (court) has a word-final vowel. However, in the plural form cortes (courts), the final -e is not pronounced in Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese. The result is [kohts] rather than pronunciations such as [kohtʃis] or [kortʃis] which are common in the rest of Brazil. In Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese, cortes is pronounced with a word-final affricate.

The following words are pronounced with a word-final affricate in Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese:

chocolates (chocolates)

cidades (cities)

dentes (teeth)

dificuldades (difficulties)

noites (nights)

partes (partes)

sociedades (societies)

tomates (tomatoes)

universidades (universities)

variedades (varieties)

In most Brazilian dialects, plurals which end with -des and -tes are pronounced with a word-final vowel and consonant sequence. In Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese, however, they are pronounced with voiced and voiceless alveolar affricates. This is one feature which distinguishes Central Northeastern Brazilian Portuguese from the other dialects of Brazil.

Differences Between English of Ireland and Northern Ireland

The English spoken in Ireland is different from that of Northern Ireland. In fact, the English spoken in Ireland and Northern Ireland varies from one region to another. Nevertheless, the two varieties are clearly distinct.

The English of Ireland and Northern Ireland is rhotic. The /r/ is pronounced in all positions. North Dublin, however, has low rhoticity. This is especially true when the /r/ is in an unstressed syllable. 

The intervocalic /d/ and /t/ are usually flapped in Northern Ireland. In Ireland, this is also possible, but many speakers from Ireland use intervocalic plosives. However, the voiceless /t/ can become voiced.

The vowels /o/ and /e/ are pronounced as monophthongs. This is not the case in many other varieties of English. In Dublin, however, these vowels are diphthongs.

The foot/strut split, a historical development which resulted in different vowels in foot and strut, definitely applies to Northern Ireland. In Ireland, however, many speakers use the foot vowel in words which do not have it in Standard English. This is especially true in North Dublin.

The intonation of Northern Ireland is often identified by its rising intonation. This intonation is also used in declarative statements. This is in contrast to the English of Ireland which does not use rising intonation in declarative statements.

The /l/ tends to be light in all positions, but many speakers in Dublin have velarized laterals syllable-finally. These velarized laterals are also found in many other varieties of English. They include RP and American English.

The interdental fricatives represented by the letters th are often pronounced as plosives in Ireland. In Northern Ireland, though, they are not pronounced as plosives. They are always pronounced as fricatives.

In Northern Ireland, words such as raise/rays and nose/knows are not pronounced identically. As in Scottish English, the words with affixes have longer vowels. The vowels of rays and knows are longer than the vowels of raise and nose.

Another difference is that words such as boot and goose are pronounced with a central vowel in Northern Ireland. The vowel is more advanced than the one used in Ireland. The vowel used in Northern Ireland resembles that of Scotland.

Though the English of Ireland and Northern Ireland share many similarities, they can be distinguished. The English of Northern Ireland has many influences from Scottish English. In Ireland, the English has been influenced more by the Irish language.