Differences in Finnish and Hungarian Word Order

Finnish and Hungarian are both part of the Uralic language family. However, the similarity between the two languages is relatively small. Much of the vocabulary is different, and though they are both SVO languages, the word order is often different.

The sentence I am a teacher is Olen opettaja in Finnish and Tanár vagyok in Hungarian. In both languages, the subject pronoun I can be dropped. However, the word order is different in the two languages. Finnish places the complement after the verb, the same as in English. In Hungarian, the complement comes before the verb.

The question Where is the park? is Missä puisto on? in Finnish. The word puisto (park) precedes the verb. The question has no definite article because it does not exist in Finnish.

In Hungarian the question Where is the park? is Hol van a park? The word order is the same as in English. The verb comes before the complement.

The sentence I am in the library is Olen kirjastossa in Finnish. The English preposition in is the postposition -ssa in Finnish. In Hungarian the sentence is A könyvtárban vagyok. The preposition in is the postposition -ban in Hungarian, but in the Hungarian sentence, the verb follows the noun phrase and there is a definite article.

The question Is it near? is Onko se lähellä? in Finnish. The order is the same as in English, but the verb includes the question particle -ko. In Hungarian, however, the question is Közel van? The subject position is empty, and the verb follows the complement. The Hungarian question uses rising intonation because falling intonation is used for the sentence Közel van (It is near). In Finnish the intonation in Se on lähellä (It is near) is the same as in the question Onko se lähellä?.

Though Finnish and Hungarian both belong to the Uralic language family and to the Finno-Ugric subfamily, they are not so closely related. Similarities include the use of postpositions and the option to drop subject pronouns. However, in vocabulary, grammar, phonology and also word order they exhibit many differences.

Palatalization of Consonants in Russian

Most Russian consonants can be classified into two types. They are palatalized and non-palatalized. The terms hard and soft are also used. In this case, the term soft is used for the consonants that are palatalized. 

Russian consonants can be divided into four sets. They are C, Cj, Cʲ and Cʲj. The first one is not palatalized, a plain consonant. The second consists of a consonant followed by a palatal glide. The second set is found in many other languages. In English the word beauty is an example. The third is a consonant with a secondary palatal articulation, and the fourth consists of a consonant with a secondary palatal articulation followed by a palatal glide.

Russian consonants can be palatalized both in the onset and in the coda. Palatalizatized and non-palatalized consonants also contrast with one another in both the syllable onset and coda. In English, however, palatalization is restricted to the syllable onset.

Palatalization is a very important feature of Russian consonants. Unlike in languages such as English which only contrast consonants with the palatal glide, Russian also uses secondary palatal articulation. Palatalization in Russian is not restricted to the consonants. Vowels are also classified into two types, hard and soft.

Alveopalatal Pronunciation of s in English

One of the most common consonants in English is the voiceless alveolar fricative. It occurs in words such as city, salt and stop. It is the plural marker in cats, lips and streets. In certain words, however, it is pronounced as a voiceless alveopalatal fricative.

The alveopalatal fricative is used in the words sugar, sure and tension. It is also used in pressure and luxury. These words used to be pronounced with an alveolar fricative and palatal glide. The process which changed the alveolar fricative and palatal glide to an alveopalatal fricative is called coalescence. It also occurred with words such as composition, session and vacation.

The voiceless alveolar fricative is a common consonant not only in English but in many languages. It is often represented by the letter s. In certain English words, the letter s is pronouned as an alveopalatal glide. This is the result of coalescence, a process which changed the alveolar fricative and palatal glide to an alveopalatal fricative.

Swedish Dialect Variation

The Swedish language has many dialects. It is often possible to tell where speakers are from based on their pronunciation. One sound, in particular, has significant variation. It is represented by the letter r.

The Swedish word far means father. Though this is a short word, it can be pronounced differently. This is due to the word-final r. In Finland and northern Sweden, the r is pronounced with an alveolar trill or flap. In Stockholm and the surrounding area, it can be an approximant. It is not pronounced at all in Smolandia, a region of southern Sweden. In Scania, the southernmost part of Sweden, the r is a uvular fricative or uvular trill. Though far is a short word, it can be pronounced in five different ways.

Another word with different pronunciations is svärd (sword). In Finland, the r is an alveolar trill. In most  Swedish dialects, however, the r is not pronounced here but influences the pronunciation of the d. As a result, the d becomes a retroflex alveolar plosive. It is not pronounced at all in Smolandia and in Scania the r is a uvular fricative or uvular trill. 

The letter r can be pronounced differently in Swedish. The pronunciation of the letter varies from one dialect to another. Most Swedish dialects have retroflex sounds, but they are not used in southern Sweden or in Finland.

Postal Abbreviations of American States

The postal abbreviations of American states consist of two letters. In many cases the abbreviation consists of the first two letters of the state as in CA (California) and FL (Florida). States with names composed of two words have abbreviations formed from the first letter of each word as in NY (New York) and SC (South Carolina). However, many states begin with the same letter. In these cases, the abbrevation may not be evident.

Here are the postal abbreviations of states which share their initial letter with other states:

Alabama (AL)

Alaska (AK)

Arizona (AZ)

Arkansas (AR)

Colorado (CO)

Connecticut (CT)

Indiana (IN)

Iowa (IA)

Maine (ME)

Maryland (MD)

Massachusetts (MA)

Michigan (MI)

Minnesota (MN)

Mississippi (MS)

Missouri (MO)

Montana (MT)

Nebraska (NE)

Nevada (NV)

Washington (WA)

Wisconsin (WI)

The abbreviation of Nebraska used to be NB. However, it was changed to NE so that it would not be confused with the Canadian province of New Brunswick. The letter Q is not used in any of the postal abbreviations of American states.

Realization of Schwa in Words With Affixation and Stress Shift

Many English words have a schwa. It often occurs in words with affixation and a shift in stress. The stressed syllable of the base becomes unstressed following affixation. This creates an environment in which the schwa can appear.

The following list illustrates the process:

able ability

access accessible

athlete athletic

biology biological

drama dramatic

economy economic

excel excellent

office official

solid solidify

vary variety

In the word athlete, the first vowel is a low front vowel. However, in the word athletic, it becomes a schwa. In the word excel, the second vowel is a mid front unrounded vowel, but in the word excellent, the second vowel is a schwa. The stress shift that occurs with affixation allows the schwa to surface.

The examples illustrate that the schwa is often realized in words with affixation and stress shift. In the words from the list, the stress shifts to the following syllable in nine words. In the case of excel/excellent, it shifts to the preceding syllable. The result is that the syllable which is stressed in the base becomes unstressed after affixation and the vowel then becomes a schwa. This is an example of a vowel weakening process.

Use of Repetition in Language

The use of repetition in language is common. It can serve many functions. They include hesitation, emphasis and suspense.

Speakers may use repetition when they are not sure what they wish to say. In these circumstances, repetition functions in the same manner as a filler such as uh or um. For example, the sentence Let's meet at at three may indicate that the speaker is thinking carefully of the time he/she wishes to suggest.

Emphasis is another reason for the use of repetition in language. This is exemplified in phrases such as very, very good, so, so funny and yes, it is, it is. In the first two examples, the degree words very and so are repeated, but in the last example, an entire sentence, it is, is repeated.

Repetition can also be used to create suspense. This is illustrated in the examples I won one one million dollars and It was my my brother who called. In these causes a pause may also come before the repeated information.

Repetition is often used in language. It can serve a variety of functions. Three functions of repetition are to show hesitation, emphasize information and create suspense.