Many new counties have been created in the last twenty years. The number of new countries is over thirty. Many of these are from the former countries of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.
15 countries were created with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. They are Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazahkstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Takikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are known as the Baltic states. Russia, the largest country of the former Soviet Union, shares a border with seven former republics. They include Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan.
With the end of the former Yugoslavia, seven countries came into existence. These are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia.
The former nation of Czechoslovakia is now two nations. They are the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The former nations of West Germany and East Germany are one- Germany. Eritrea is a nation which used to be part of Ethiopia and East Timor used to be part of Indonesia. East Timor is the only Asian country whose official language is Portuguese.
A number of countries have been created in the last twenty years. Many of them are from the former nations of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. Most are relatively small countries but Russia is a notable exception.
Monday, January 18, 2010
Wednesday, January 13, 2010
Colours
Colours can be classified into primary, secondary, tertiary and neutral. Primary colours are pure hues. This means that they cannot be created by mixing colours. Secondary colours are created by mixing primary colours and tertiary colours are created by mixing primary and secondary colours.
The three primary colours are yellow, red and blue. With these three colours many other colours can be created. If more white is added to a primary colour, this is called a tint. If more black is added, this is called a shade. If grey is added, the colour acquires a different tone.
The secondary colours are orange, purple and green. Orange is a mixture of yellow and red. Purple is a mixture of red and blue and green is a mixture of blue and yellow.
Tertiary colours are a combination of a primary and a secondary colour. Brown is created by mixing the primary colour red with the secondary colour green.
The neutral colours are white, black and grey. White and black are opposites. White is bright but black is dark. In a certain sense, black and white are not colours because black can be considered the absence of light and white is the blending of many bright colours. Black can be created by mixing many colours. A combination of the primary colours yellow, red and blue can create black.
Though the primary colours are limited to three, they can be used to create many other colours. These include the secondary and tertiary colours. Other colours are the neutral colours which can be combined with primary and secondary colours to create a tint or shade and even a different tone.
The three primary colours are yellow, red and blue. With these three colours many other colours can be created. If more white is added to a primary colour, this is called a tint. If more black is added, this is called a shade. If grey is added, the colour acquires a different tone.
The secondary colours are orange, purple and green. Orange is a mixture of yellow and red. Purple is a mixture of red and blue and green is a mixture of blue and yellow.
Tertiary colours are a combination of a primary and a secondary colour. Brown is created by mixing the primary colour red with the secondary colour green.
The neutral colours are white, black and grey. White and black are opposites. White is bright but black is dark. In a certain sense, black and white are not colours because black can be considered the absence of light and white is the blending of many bright colours. Black can be created by mixing many colours. A combination of the primary colours yellow, red and blue can create black.
Though the primary colours are limited to three, they can be used to create many other colours. These include the secondary and tertiary colours. Other colours are the neutral colours which can be combined with primary and secondary colours to create a tint or shade and even a different tone.
Sunday, January 10, 2010
Received Pronunciation
Received Pronunciation, also known as RP, is the name given to a variety of British English. Because it is spoken by members of the Royal Family, professors of Oxford and Cambridge, and BBC newscasters, it is considered a prestigious accent. However, current statistics reveal that it is no longer spoken by many people in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. It is now mostly spoken in England.
Received Pronunciation also has other names. These include Oxford English, BBC English and Queen's English. Though it is the form of British English which is most often taught to foreigners, it is a minority accent. Only 2-3% of the English population actually speaks it. Though many speakers of RP live in London, it is not a regional accent. RP speakers may be found in any part of Britain. In fact, upper-class Scots often speak RP with no trace of a Scottish accent.
RP has a number of notable features. These include a diphthong in words such as "go", "show" and "boat" in which the first component is a mid front unrounded vowel. Other features include a word-final lax vowel in words such as "happy" and thirty", a mid back rounded lax vowel in words such as "not" and "off", a low back vowel in "bath" and "dance", and high vowels which are slightly diphthongized such as in "read" and "boot".
The RP accent is non-rhotic, the same as most accents of England. The words "pa" and "par" sound the same. However, "he" and "here" do not because "here" ends with a schwa.
Received Pronunciation is a famous accent associated with the British upper-class. It is also the variety of British English that is most familiar to many people. However, it is definitely not the most widely-spoken. It must be considered a minority accent because it is spoken by a relatively small percentage of the British population.
Received Pronunciation also has other names. These include Oxford English, BBC English and Queen's English. Though it is the form of British English which is most often taught to foreigners, it is a minority accent. Only 2-3% of the English population actually speaks it. Though many speakers of RP live in London, it is not a regional accent. RP speakers may be found in any part of Britain. In fact, upper-class Scots often speak RP with no trace of a Scottish accent.
RP has a number of notable features. These include a diphthong in words such as "go", "show" and "boat" in which the first component is a mid front unrounded vowel. Other features include a word-final lax vowel in words such as "happy" and thirty", a mid back rounded lax vowel in words such as "not" and "off", a low back vowel in "bath" and "dance", and high vowels which are slightly diphthongized such as in "read" and "boot".
The RP accent is non-rhotic, the same as most accents of England. The words "pa" and "par" sound the same. However, "he" and "here" do not because "here" ends with a schwa.
Received Pronunciation is a famous accent associated with the British upper-class. It is also the variety of British English that is most familiar to many people. However, it is definitely not the most widely-spoken. It must be considered a minority accent because it is spoken by a relatively small percentage of the British population.
Monday, January 4, 2010
Nothing Gold Can Stay
One of Robert Frost's most famous poems is "Nothing Gold Can Stay". Here follows the poem:
Nothing Gold Can Stay
Nature's first green is gold,
Her hardest hue to hold.
Her early leaf's a flower;
But only so an hour.
Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down to day,
Nothing gold can stay.
This poem consists of eight verses with the rhyme scheme a, a, b, b, c, c, d, d. Each verse consists of six syllables in which the stress pattern is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one. The six syllables can be organized into three feet. Thus the poem is in iambic trimeter.
Robert Frost's poem is about the loss of innocence. In the first verse we read that youth is gold. However, this is only temporary because all newborns eventually change. They lose their innocence, age and die. As much as they may wish to retain their youth, they cannot.
The early leaf is a flower but it does not last long. The cycle of life is emphasized in the fifth verse. As one leaf is replaced by another, a newborn is also replaced by another. The sixth verse mentions Eden, the paradise described in the Book of Genesis. Adam and Eve, the first humans, were innocent until their act of disobedience. With this fall of innocence, the garden ceased to be a paradise.
The seventh verse uses dawn and day to depict the cycle of life and death. In the final verse, we have the title of the poem. This emphasizes that youth and innocence later fade.
Robert Frost's poem reminds us that purity and youth are not eternal. As dawn and day and the changing hues of leaves, they also change with time. Though short, the poem expresses the beauty of birth and life.
Nothing Gold Can Stay
Nature's first green is gold,
Her hardest hue to hold.
Her early leaf's a flower;
But only so an hour.
Then leaf subsides to leaf.
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down to day,
Nothing gold can stay.
This poem consists of eight verses with the rhyme scheme a, a, b, b, c, c, d, d. Each verse consists of six syllables in which the stress pattern is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one. The six syllables can be organized into three feet. Thus the poem is in iambic trimeter.
Robert Frost's poem is about the loss of innocence. In the first verse we read that youth is gold. However, this is only temporary because all newborns eventually change. They lose their innocence, age and die. As much as they may wish to retain their youth, they cannot.
The early leaf is a flower but it does not last long. The cycle of life is emphasized in the fifth verse. As one leaf is replaced by another, a newborn is also replaced by another. The sixth verse mentions Eden, the paradise described in the Book of Genesis. Adam and Eve, the first humans, were innocent until their act of disobedience. With this fall of innocence, the garden ceased to be a paradise.
The seventh verse uses dawn and day to depict the cycle of life and death. In the final verse, we have the title of the poem. This emphasizes that youth and innocence later fade.
Robert Frost's poem reminds us that purity and youth are not eternal. As dawn and day and the changing hues of leaves, they also change with time. Though short, the poem expresses the beauty of birth and life.
Wednesday, December 30, 2009
Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis studies social interaction. A part of linguistics, it has become increasingly popular since the late 80's.
Discourse analysts often use particular symbols to explain discourse. These may include marks to denote a short pause, a long pause, words spoken at the same time and words which are unclear.
In discourse analysis the two speakers in a conversation are called the speaker and the hearer. Though the word "hearer" may appear to suggest one who is passive or does not wish to participate in the conversation as opposed to the word "listener", this is in fact the word that is commonly used.
Speakers often do not speak directly. For example, the utterance "I haven't played tennis in a long time" may mean "I'd love to play tennis with you". If the speaker feels that he/she has lower status than the hearer, the utterance "When can we play tennis?" may be too direct.
Likewise, if a person pronounces a language incorrectly, the hearer may reply, "Your pronunciation is very good" because the direct "Your pronunciation is incorrect" may hurt his/her feelings. If the reply "Your pronunciation is very good" is said without emotion, it may simply be an attempt to be polite.
Another example of an indirect reply is "Maybe later" to the question "Would you like a cup of coffee?" This is much softer than the reply "No" and is rather common in the Japanese culture. This is particularly true in cases where the speaker has higher status than the hearer.
Discourse analysis is a relatively new and important research area in linguistics. It is important for understanding the ways in which speakers communicate with one another. Based on the relationship between the speaker and hearer, the words which they use can vary significantly.
Discourse analysts often use particular symbols to explain discourse. These may include marks to denote a short pause, a long pause, words spoken at the same time and words which are unclear.
In discourse analysis the two speakers in a conversation are called the speaker and the hearer. Though the word "hearer" may appear to suggest one who is passive or does not wish to participate in the conversation as opposed to the word "listener", this is in fact the word that is commonly used.
Speakers often do not speak directly. For example, the utterance "I haven't played tennis in a long time" may mean "I'd love to play tennis with you". If the speaker feels that he/she has lower status than the hearer, the utterance "When can we play tennis?" may be too direct.
Likewise, if a person pronounces a language incorrectly, the hearer may reply, "Your pronunciation is very good" because the direct "Your pronunciation is incorrect" may hurt his/her feelings. If the reply "Your pronunciation is very good" is said without emotion, it may simply be an attempt to be polite.
Another example of an indirect reply is "Maybe later" to the question "Would you like a cup of coffee?" This is much softer than the reply "No" and is rather common in the Japanese culture. This is particularly true in cases where the speaker has higher status than the hearer.
Discourse analysis is a relatively new and important research area in linguistics. It is important for understanding the ways in which speakers communicate with one another. Based on the relationship between the speaker and hearer, the words which they use can vary significantly.
Sunday, December 20, 2009
Castling Can Be An Error
Castling is usually a good move, but not always. If the centre is closed and your opponent can generate strong attacks on the wings, it is better to keep the king in the centre. In a recent game which I played at letsplaychess.com, my opponent castled and I did not. His castled position led to his quick downfall. My opponent was Hillwalker of Scotland who played black. Here are the moves of the game with my commentary.
1. e4 Nc6
Black's move is unusual. The reply Nf6 is far more common.
2. d4 d5
3. e5 a6
I decide to keep my pawn on the board and maintain a strong pawn centre.
4. h3 Bf5
5. Nf3 e6
6. Bd3 Nb4
I challenge black's light-squared bishop. To my surprise, he does not take it but advances his queen knight.
7. Bxf5 exf5
Black has doubled pawns on the f-file.
8. a3 Nc6
Black is forced to retreat the knight.
9. Nc3 g6
10. Bg5 Be7
11. Bxe7 Ngxe7
12. Qd2 0-0
Black's decision to castle gives me a clear strategy. I want to attack on the h-file.
13. h4 b5
14. Ne2 Kg7
I shift my knight towards the h-file. Black's last move is not the best. A better move is h5. Black is weak on the dark squares.
15. h5 a5
16. hxg6 Nxg6
17. Qh6+
Black resigns. I have mate in one. If he plays Kh8 or Kg8, I play Qxh7#.
Castling is usually a good move but in this game it proves fatal for black. The centre is closed so the king is safe there. In this game black attempts to generate counterplay on the queenside but loses because of my strong pawn centre and control of the h-file. Though castling is often a very good defensive manoeuvre, in this game it is much better for black not to castle.
1. e4 Nc6
Black's move is unusual. The reply Nf6 is far more common.
2. d4 d5
3. e5 a6
I decide to keep my pawn on the board and maintain a strong pawn centre.
4. h3 Bf5
5. Nf3 e6
6. Bd3 Nb4
I challenge black's light-squared bishop. To my surprise, he does not take it but advances his queen knight.
7. Bxf5 exf5
Black has doubled pawns on the f-file.
8. a3 Nc6
Black is forced to retreat the knight.
9. Nc3 g6
10. Bg5 Be7
11. Bxe7 Ngxe7
12. Qd2 0-0
Black's decision to castle gives me a clear strategy. I want to attack on the h-file.
13. h4 b5
14. Ne2 Kg7
I shift my knight towards the h-file. Black's last move is not the best. A better move is h5. Black is weak on the dark squares.
15. h5 a5
16. hxg6 Nxg6
17. Qh6+
Black resigns. I have mate in one. If he plays Kh8 or Kg8, I play Qxh7#.
Castling is usually a good move but in this game it proves fatal for black. The centre is closed so the king is safe there. In this game black attempts to generate counterplay on the queenside but loses because of my strong pawn centre and control of the h-file. Though castling is often a very good defensive manoeuvre, in this game it is much better for black not to castle.
Thursday, December 17, 2009
Romanization of Korean Family Names
Korean family names often have a variety of spellings when they are romanized. This is due to a number of reasons. One is the spelling reform which changed the romanization of Korean and another is the inherent difficulties of representing family names with a different writing system. Also, many people prefer to keep the traditional spelling and thus have no desire to change it.
The three most common Korean family names are Kim, Park and Lee. In Korean they are 김, 박 and 이. The surname "Lee" is traditionally spelt with these three letters but in fact, the Korean pronunciation of the name is equivalent to "ee". It consists of a single vowel. However, the spelling "Ee" is never used for the surname.
The surname "Kim" is pronounced with an unaspirated velar plosive. Under the latest spelling reform, unaspirated velar plosives are now represented by a "g". As a result, the revised spelling of this name is "Gim". However, this spelling is not common. Without question, the traditional spelling dominates.
The surname "Park" can be spelt in many ways. The spelling "Park" is closest to the Korean pronunciation when it is pronounced with a non-rhotic accent because there is no liquid in the pronunciation of this name. Other spellings include "Pak", "Bark" and "Bak".
The surname "Lee" also has a variety of spellings. Other possible spellings of this common name are "Rhee" and "Yi". However, the traditional spelling "Lee" remains the most common. In fact, this family name is also very common in Chinese.
Other Korean family names can also be spelt in a number of ways. Here is a list of Korean family names with different possible spellings:
Kwon, Gwon, Kweon, Kwan
Jang, Chang
Jeong, Chung, Jung, Joung, Cheong
Yu, Yoo, You
The latest spelling reform changed the spelling of the "u" with the sound of the "u" in "up" to "eo". Traditionally, this sound was also represented by the letters "ou" as in "young". However, the traditional spelling of Korean family names remains popular.
Korean family names often have a variety of spellings in the Roman alphabet. In many cases a traditional spelling exists alongside a revised spelling. In other cases, the variety is due to the different possible ways of representing Korean pronunciation in Roman letters. However, it appears that the traditional spelling remains more popular than the revised one.
The three most common Korean family names are Kim, Park and Lee. In Korean they are 김, 박 and 이. The surname "Lee" is traditionally spelt with these three letters but in fact, the Korean pronunciation of the name is equivalent to "ee". It consists of a single vowel. However, the spelling "Ee" is never used for the surname.
The surname "Kim" is pronounced with an unaspirated velar plosive. Under the latest spelling reform, unaspirated velar plosives are now represented by a "g". As a result, the revised spelling of this name is "Gim". However, this spelling is not common. Without question, the traditional spelling dominates.
The surname "Park" can be spelt in many ways. The spelling "Park" is closest to the Korean pronunciation when it is pronounced with a non-rhotic accent because there is no liquid in the pronunciation of this name. Other spellings include "Pak", "Bark" and "Bak".
The surname "Lee" also has a variety of spellings. Other possible spellings of this common name are "Rhee" and "Yi". However, the traditional spelling "Lee" remains the most common. In fact, this family name is also very common in Chinese.
Other Korean family names can also be spelt in a number of ways. Here is a list of Korean family names with different possible spellings:
Kwon, Gwon, Kweon, Kwan
Jang, Chang
Jeong, Chung, Jung, Joung, Cheong
Yu, Yoo, You
The latest spelling reform changed the spelling of the "u" with the sound of the "u" in "up" to "eo". Traditionally, this sound was also represented by the letters "ou" as in "young". However, the traditional spelling of Korean family names remains popular.
Korean family names often have a variety of spellings in the Roman alphabet. In many cases a traditional spelling exists alongside a revised spelling. In other cases, the variety is due to the different possible ways of representing Korean pronunciation in Roman letters. However, it appears that the traditional spelling remains more popular than the revised one.
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