Variation in German Final Obstruent Devoicing

Final obstruent devoicing is common in the German of northern Germany and is considered standard. The result is that words such as Rad (wheel) and Rat (advice) are pronounced the same. However, in varieties of southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland, many speakers do not devoice final obstruents.

In the words Archiv (archive), Sand (sand), Tag (day) and Kalb (calf), the final consonants are voiceless in standard German. In regional varieties of southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland, however, they are voiced. This is a significant difference between the German of northern Germany and southern Germany.

Final obstruent devoicing is common in many languages. It occurs in languages such as Catalan, Mongolian, Russian, Polish and Dutch. It also occurs in German. However, in regional varieties of German, final obstruent devoicing does not occur.

Words Often Pronounced with H-Dropping

Many English dialects have h-dropping. One example is Cockney. However, even in standard English, five words are often pronounced with h-dropping. They are he, her, him, have and had.

The word he is often dropped in sentences such as I'm not sure if he is coming. Speakers often drop the word her in sentences such as I don't know her. In the sentence I can give it to him, the h is also often dropped.

The auxiliary verb have can also be pronounced with h-dropping. An example is the sentence She should have told me. In addition to h-dropping, the vowel is reduced and produced as a schwa. Further reduction is also possible. In the sentence I've finished, only the final consonant of the auxiliary verb is pronounced. 

Another auxiliary verb which can be pronounced with h-dropping is had. An example is the sentence If my sister had finished early, she would have joined us. In addition to h-dropping, the vowel is reduced and pronounced as a schwa. Further reduction is also possible. In the sentence If I'd started sooner, I would have already finished only the final consonant of the auxiliary verb is pronounced.

H-dropping is the phenomenon which drops the consonant from words. It is one of the distinctive characteristics of Cockney English. Though it is not associated with standard English, it is nevertheless common in five words of conversational English.

Spanish Feminine Nouns with the Masculine Article

In Spanish the definite article is el before singular masculine nouns and la before singular feminine nouns. However, in certain cases, el is used before singular feminine nouns. This is only for feminine nouns which begin with the vowel sound /a/.

Ten feminine nouns which are preceded by el are the following:

agua (water)

águila (eagle)

alba (dawn)

alma (soul)

ancla (anchor)

arpa (harp)

aula (classroom)

ave (bird)

hacha (axe)

hambre (hunger)

Though these feminine nouns combine with el, adjectives which precede the nouns are always feminine. Examples include esta agua (this water) and nuestra aula (our classroom). Feminine nouns which are not stressed on the initial syllable are preceded by la. The word amapola (poppy) is stressed on the third syllable. As a result, the poppy is la amapola.

Spanish singular feminine nouns are preceded by the definite article la. However, feminine singular nouns which are stressed on the initial syllable and begin with the vowel sound /a/ are preceded by the definite article el. However, though they are preceded by el, the adjectives used to modify them are always feminine.

Italian Words in Music

Italian words are common in music notation. They were first used by Italian composers of the seventeenth century. However, they have since spread to the rest of the world.

Here is a list of Italian words used in music:

adagio (slow)

allegro (fast)

crescendo (gradually louder)

diminuendo (gradually slower)

dolce (sweet)

forte (loud)

moderato (moderate)

piano (soft)

presto (very fast)

vivace (fast and lively)

The adjectives also have intensive forms. For example, the word pianissimo means very soft and pianississimo means as soft as possible. Likewise, the word fortissimo means very loud and fortississimo means as loud as possible.

Many of the terms used in music notation are from Italian. The majority of the most important musical composers from the Renaissance to the Baroque period were Italian. This is the reason that Italian is used so extensively in music.

Letters of Different Languages

Many languages use the Roman alphabet. It is used in most European languages, but also in African languages such as Swahili and Asian languages such as Vietnamese. Let us present a few letters that are not used in many languages.

The letter æ was once used in English, but not today. It is used in Danish, Norwegian, Faroese and Icelandic.

Danish, Norwegian and Swedish use the letter å. It represents the mid back vowel.

The letters ð and þ were once used in English. They are used in Icelandic and represent interdental fricatives.

Danish and Norwegian use the letter ø. It represents the mid front rounded vowel.

Hungarian uses the letters ő and ű. They represent long front rounded vowels.

French and Portuguese use the letter ç. It is often called the soft c.

Czech uses the letter ř. It represents the fricative trill, a sound that is unique to Czech.

German uses the letter ß. It represents the alveolar fricative, but in Switzerland and Liechtenstein, it is no longer used and is replaced by ss.

Czech uses the letter ů. It is used to represent the long back rounded vowel.

Though many languages use the Roman alphabet, also known as the Latin alphabet, they often use additional letters. Many are for unique sounds such as the fricative trill, which is only used in Czech. The letters æ, ð and þ were once used in English.

Mixed Conditionals

Mixed conditionals combine two types of conditional patterns. Two common patterns consist of the third conditional in the if clause and the second conditional in the main clause, and the second conditional in the if clause and the third conditional in the main clause. They are used to express a past condition and present result and also to express a present condition and past result. Let us look at examples.

The following sentences combine the third conditional and the second conditional:

If I had won the lottery, I would be very rich now.

If I hadn't quit my piano lessons, I might play the piano really well.

The next two sentences combine the second conditional and the third conditional:

If I were younger, I would have gotten the job.

If I didn't have so much work, I would have gone to the party.

Conditional sentences can be classified into four types: type 0, type 1, type 2 and type 3. However, mixed conditionals are also common. As illustrated in the examples, they often combine the second and third conditionals.

Pronunciation of the Lateral in English Dialects

In Received Pronunciation, the alveolar lateral is velarized in syllable-final position. The velarized lateral is also called dark. In syllable-initial position, it is not velarized and can also be called light. However, not all English dialects follow the pattern of Received Pronunciation.

The dialect of Bristol is in southwestern England. Though it is a southern dialect and most southern dialects follow the pattern of Received Pronunciation, Bristol does not. In Bristol, the lateral is velarized both syllable-initially and syllable-finally.

The dialect of Newcastle is in northwestern England. Though it is a northern dialect and most northern dialects velarize the lateral in all positions, Newcastle does not. In Newcastle, the lateral is not velarized syllable-initially or syllable-finally.

English dialects vary in the pronunciation of the alveolar lateral. Most southern dialects velarize it in the syllable coda, and most northern dialects velarize the lateral in both the syllable onset and the syllable coda. In the dialect of Bristol, however, the lateral is velarized as in most northern dialects, and in the dialect of Newcastle, the lateral is never velarized, a feature that is also typical of many Irish dialects. The pronunciation of the lateral varies in the dialects of England.

The Barber of Seville

One of the most popular comedic operas is The Barber of Seville by the Italian composer Gioachino Rossini. The opera has two acts and is considered a masterpiece of comedy and music. It is based on the French play by Pierre Beaumarchais.

The opera begins in a public square outside the house of Bartolo. He is a doctor of medicine and Rosina's guardian. A group of musicians and a young student named Lindoro serenade Rosina, but it is to no avail. Lindoro, who is actually the young Count Almaviva in disguise, wants Rosina to love him for who he is and not for his money. After Lindoro pays the musicians, they leave him to plan his next move.

Figaro, the barber, approaches Count Almaviva. Since Figaro used to be a servant of Count Almaviva, the Count asks him for assistance with Rosina. Figaro advises the Count to disguise himself as a drunk soldier and seek accommodation from Bartolo in order to enter the house. For his suggestion, Figaro is generously rewarded. 

In a room of Bartolo's house, Rosalina writes to Lindoro because she wants to get to know him better. As she is leaving the room, Bartolo enters with the music teacher Basilio. Bartolo is suspicious of the Count, and Basilio suggests that they create false rumours about him to be rid of him.

When the two leave, Rosina and Figaro enter. Figaro asks Rosina to write a few nice words to Lindoro, but she has already done so. Bartolo remains suspicious of the Count, but Rosina does not reveal anything.

Count Almaviva disguises himself as a soldier and pretends to be drunk. He then enters the house and asks for accommodation. In fear of the drunk man, Berta the housekeeper rushes to Bartolo for protection. Bartolo tells the soldier, Count Almaviva in disguise, that he has an official exemption which excuses him from the requirement to accommodate soldiers. The Count pretends to be too drunk to understand and dares Bartolo to fight. While Bartolo searches his desk for the document to prove his exemption, the Count whispers to Rosina that he is Lindoro in disguise and gives her a love letter.

Bartolo suspiciously demands to know what is in Rosalina's hands, but she fools him by handing over her laundry list. Bartolo and the Count begin to argue loudly and then Basilio and Figaro enter. Figaro warns that the noise is disturbing the entire neighbourhood. Finally, the noise attracts the attention of the police officer and his troops who rush into the room. Bartolo demands that the police officer arrest the drunken soldier, but when the Count quietly reveals his true identity, the police officer refuses. Bartolo and Basilio are both astonished.

Count Almaviva again appears at Bartolo's house, but this time he is disguised as Don Alonso, a priest and music teacher who says he is substituting for the ill Basilio. To gain Bartolo's trust, Don Alonso tells him that he has intercepted a note from Lindoro to Rosina, and that Lindoro is a servant of Count Almaviva who has bad intentions towards Rosina. While the Count pretends to give Rosina her singing lesson, Figaro arrives to shave Bartolo. Unwilling to leave Rosina alone with Don Alonso, Bartolo insists that Figaro shave him there in the music room. Basilio suddenly appears for his scheduled lesson, but he is generously bribed by Almaviva and persuaded to leave. However, Bartolo overhears Don Alonso and Rosina speaking, and angrily tells Don Alonso to leave.

Later Bartolo orders Basilio to have the notary ready to marry him to Rosina that evening. Bartolo shows Rosina the letter she wrote to Lindoro and persuades her it is proof that Lindoro is only a companion of Count Almaviva and is playing with her at the Count's request. Rosina believes the story and agrees to marry Bartolo.

Count Almaviva and Figaro climb up a ladder to the balcony and enter Rosina's room through a window. Rosina accuses Count Almaviva, who she believes is Lindoro, of betraying her. At that moment, Count Almaviva reveals his identity and the two reconcile. While Count Almaviva and Rosina speak, Figaro urges them to leave. Basilio and the notary approach the front door. The Count, Rosina and Figaro try to leave with the ladder, but discover it has been removed. 

Using bribes and threats, Count Almaviva convinces the notary to marry him to Rosina with Basilio and Figaro as the witnesses. Bartolo enters with the police officer and his men, but it is too late. Though he is very upset, Bartolo is calmed by the news that he can keep Rosina's dowry. 

The opera The Barber of Seville is a masterpiece of music and comedy. Though the barber is in the title of the opera, the main characters are Count Almaviva and Rosina. Gioachino Rossini composed more than 40 operas, but The Barber of Seville is undoubtedly his most popular.

Unique Characteristics of French Phonology

French is a Romance language. However, the phonology of French differs from that of other Romance languages in many areas. Let us analyze the phonology of French.

Unlike other Romance languages, French has front rounded vowels. They occur in words such as lune (moon), tu (you), deux (two) and feu (fire). In words such as jeune (young) and peur (fear), the vowel is mid front lax rounded, but in deux and feu, it is mid front tense rounded.

In words such as rouge (red), roi (king) and mer (sea), French has a uvular consonant. It can be pronounced as a uvular fricative or uvular trill. It is different from the alveolar trill of Italian and Spanish.

A sound which is used in French but not in other Romance languages is the labiopalatal approximant. It occurs in words such as cuisse (thigh), huit (eight) and nuit (night).

Also characteristic of French is the stress. Instead of the word stress associated with other Romance languages, French tends to stress each word quite evenly with the strongest stress at the end of the phrase. In the phrase Excusez-moi (Excuse me), the main stress is placed on the final word moi.

French phonology differs signficantly from that of other Romance languages. Differences include the front rounded vowels, the uvular fricative or trill and the labiopalatal approximant. Another difference is the phrase-final stress rather than word stress.

The Necklace

The Necklace is a short story by the French writer Guy de Maupassant. It conveys the message that people should be happy with what they have. If they are not, it can bring them problems and anxiety.

The story introduces the reader to Mathilde Loisel, a pretty woman married to a clerk in the Ministry of Education. Though he works hard, he can only provide her with a modest lifestyle. She regrets her economic circumstances and imagines a more extravagant lifestyle. Though she has no fancy jewels or clothing, she longs for them constantly. She has one wealthy friend, Madame Forestier, but refuses to visit her because of the sadness it gives her.

One night her husband proudly gives her an invitation to a formal party hosted by the Ministry of Education. He hopes that his wife will be happy to attend, but she is angry and begins to cry. She explains that she has nothing to wear and she suggests that he give the invitation to a friend whose wife can afford better clothes. Her husband is upset by her reaction and asks how much a nice dress costs. She thinks it over carefully and tells him that 400 francs is enough. Though he is astounded by the amount, he agrees to give her the money.

As the day of the party approaches, Mathilde behaves strangely. She confesses that the reason for her behaviour is her lack of jewels. Her husband suggests that she wear flowers, but she refuses. He asks her to visit Madame Forrestier and borrow jewels from her. Madame Forestier agrees, and Mathilde selects a diamond necklace. She is very grateful for her friend's generosity.

At the party, Mathilde is the most beautiful woman, and everyone notices her. She loves the attention and feels very satisfied. At 4 a.m. she finally looks for her husband, who has fallen asleep in an empty room. He covers her shoulders in a coat and asks her to wait inside, away from the cold air, while he gets a taxi. She is ashamed of the cheap coat but follows him outside and they get into a taxi.

When they arrive home, Mathilde is sad that the night has ended. As she removes her coat, she discovers that her necklace is no longer around her neck. In a panic, her husband goes outside and retraces their steps. Terrified, she sits and waits for him. He returns and is in even greater panic because he has not found the necklace. He tells her to write to Madame Forestier with the excuse that she damaged the necklace and is getting it repaired.

They continue to look for the necklace but fail to find it. After one week, her husband says they have to replace it. They visit many jewellers in search of a similar necklace and finally find one. It costs 40,000 francs, but the jeweller says he can give it to them for 36,000. Mr. Loisel decides to use the money he has saved from his father and to borrow money from different people . He then buys the necklace, and Mathilde returns it to Madame Forestier. Her friend is annoyed that Mathilde took so long to return it, but does not open the case to inspect it. Mathilde is relieved.

The Loisels begin a life of poverty. They dismiss their servant and move into a smaller apartment. Mr. Loisel now has now three jobs and Mathilde spends all her time doing housework. Their misery lasts ten years, but they finally manage to repay their financial debts. Mathilde's beauty has disappeared. She and her husband are tired and stressed from their many years of hardship.

One Sunday, while she is out for a walk, Mathilde notices Madame Forestier. Feeling emotional, she approaches her and greets her. Madame Forestier does not recognize her, and when Mathilde identifies herself, Madame Forestier cannot help but say that she looks different. Mathilde explains the long story of losing the necklace, replacing it and working for ten years to pay their debts. At the end of her story, Madame Forestier takes Mathilde's hands and tells her that the original necklace was imitation and worth 500 francs at the most.

Mathilde longs for a life of luxury, but her dissatisfaction causes her many years of hardship. Though her husband cannot provide her with the lifestyle that she desires, he loves her. The story The Necklace teaches that people should be happy with what they have but also the value of honesty. If Mathilde had told Madame Loisel the truth about the necklace, she probably woud have been able to replace it easily.

Ambiguity of the Pronoun We

The pronoun we is the first person plural subject pronoun of English. Unlike the first person singular I, the specific number of the pronoun we is not clear. It may refer to two individuals or it may refer to more. It is also unclear whether the pronoun refers to the person addressed or not, and also whether or not it refers to men or to women.

In a number of languages, we has an inclusive form and an exclusive form. The inclusive form extends to the person who is addressed, but the exclusive form does not. Languages with both inclusive and exclusive forms include Fijian, Hawaiian, Malayalam and Punjabi.

Though the number expressed by the pronoun we is not specific, certain languages have a dual form. It indicates that the subject consists of two individuals. Languages which use the dual meaning of the pronoun we include Breton, Slovenian and Sorbian.

Spanish has the words nosotros and nosotras. The word nosotros refers to men or to men and women. However, the word nosotras refer to women only. 

In English the pronoun we can refer to two or more people, can include or exclude the person addressed, and it can refer solely to men, to men and women and to women only. In other languages, the pronoun has exclusive and inclusive forms, a dual form and in Spanish a form that is exclusively for women. The precise meaning of the pronoun can thus vary from one language to another.

Compound Words with Modified Pronunciations

Most compound words are pronounced with the identical pronunciation of each word in the compound. However, a few compound words are not. Let us look at ten compound words with modified pronunciations.

The following compound words have pronunciations which differ from the individual words:

breakfast

cupboard

endless

everybody

gentleman

gentlemen

necklace

nothing

vineyard

woodland

In the compound breakfast, both the word break and the word fast are not pronounced as they are in the individual words. 

This is also the case with cupboard. The final consonant of cup is not pronounced, and the word board is pronounced with a different vowel in the compound cupboard.

In the compound endless, the word less is pronounced with a schwa.

The word everybody has a different vowel in the second part of the compound. It is not the same vowel used in body.

The compound gentleman has a schwa in the word man. This is also true for the word gentlemen. The result is that gentleman and gentlemen are pronounced the same.

In the word necklace, the second word of the compound is not pronounced the same as the word lace. The final vowel in necklace is a schwa.

However, in the word nothing, it is the first part of the compound which is pronounced differently. The first vowel of nothing is different from the vowel of no.

In the compound word vineyard, both parts of the compound have different vowels from those of vine and yard. However, in British English, only the first word of the compound is pronounced differently.

The compound woodland has a different vowel in the second part of the compound. The word land has a schwa when it is in the compound word woodland.

Most compound words are pronounced the same as the individual words in the compound. The compounds boathouse, surfboard and weekday are pronounced with the identical pronunciations of each word in the compound. However, with certain words, the pronunciation is modified. This indicates that the pronunciation of compound words can change over time.

Examples of Cases in Latin

Cases are an important part of Latin grammar. Latin nouns use different ending based on their role in the sentence. Let us illustrate the use of four cases: nominative, accusative, genitive and dative.

The first Latin sentence we want to analyze is Puella cantat. The meaning of the sentence is The girl sings. In the sentence the word puella (girl) is in nominative case.

Now we can analyze Puellam videō. It means I see a girl. The word puellam (girl) is the object of the sentence. It is in accusative case.

The next sentence is Hic est liber puellae. It means This is the girl's book. In this sentence puellae (girl's) is in genitive case.

Let us now analyze the sentence Canem puellae dant. The meaning of the sentence is They give the girl a dog. In this sentence the word puellae is the indirect object. Though it has the same ending as in the sentence Hic est liber puellae (This is the girl's book), it is in dative case because it is the indirect object of the sentence.

The examples illustrate the importance of case in Latin. In English the word girl is invariable in the nominative, accusative and dative cases. However, in Latin puella is used for the nominative, puellam for the accusative, and puellae for the genitive and dative. It is clear that nouns in Latin are inflected more than they are in English.

Different Words in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish

Danish, Norwegian and Swedish are North Germanic languages and are closely related to one another. Many of the words used in the three languages are identical. However, they also have words that are quite different from one another. The first word is Danish, the second one is Norwegian and the third is Swedish. Here is a list of three words that differ in the three languages:

dreng gutt pojke (boy)

spand bøtte hink (bucket)

pige jente flicka (girl)

brint hydrogen väte (hydrogen)

overskæg bart mustasch (mustache)

larm bråk buller (noise)

ilt oksygen syre (oxygen)

rive rake räfsa  (rake)

hindbær bringebær hallon (raspberry)

i dere ni (you)

The words i/dere/ni are for the second personal plural. For the second person singular, all languages use du. The words hindbær and bringebær both have the word bær, the word for berry. Norwegian uses words that are similar to those of many other languages for hydrogen and oxygen, but Danish and Swedish do not.

It is evident from the list that Danish, Norwegian and Swedish words can differ considerably from one another. Though many words in the three languages are similar and even identical, it is not always the case. The words from the list illustrate this reality.

Use of Tu and Você in Brazilian Portuguese

In Brazilian Portuguese the second personal singular pronoun you has two forms. One is tu and the other is você. Most speakers use only one of the two.

The word você is used on all official documents, but tu is common in the south and in the north. It is also used by the working class of Rio de Janeiro. In cities such as Sao Paulo and Brasilia, você is common.

Among speakers who use both tu and você, tu is intimate and você is formal. For example, tu is used with family and friends, but você is used with bosses and the elderly.

In Brazilian Portuguese, você is more common than tu, but both words are used. However, all speakers use only one form for the second personal plural, vocês. The difference between tu and você in Brazilian Portuguese is regional. The form você dominates in central Brazil, but tu dominates in the south and the north.

Analysis of English Numbers from Twenty to Ninety

The numbers from twenty to ninety are multiples of ten. In English they end with -ty, a suffix that was -tig in Old English and meant ten. Let us analyze the multiples of ten in English.

The numbers sixty, seventy and ninety contain the words six, seven and nine. The number eighty contains the word eight, but eighty is written with only one t instead of two. The number forty has no u even though it is present in the word fourteen.

It is clear that the spelling of the numbers twenty, thirty and fifty does not include the numbers two, three and five. They reflect that languages are not completely regular. In the word twenty, the w is pronounced, but in two, it is not.

English multiples of ten are formed with two parts. The first is the number and the second is the suffix -ty. Other Germanic languages form multiples of ten similarly. The number ninety is neunzig in German, negentig in Dutch, nittio in Swedish and nitti in Norwegian. Though the multiples of ten do not include the word ten, the suffix -ty was -tig in Old English, and it meant ten.

Number of Nasal Vowels in French

French has many nasal vowels. In Belgium and Canada, the number of nasal vowels is four. In Paris and many other parts of France, it is only three.

The words an (year), cinq (five) and bon (good) have nasal vowels. In Belgium and Canada, the word un has another nasal vowel. In France, however, many speakers use the same nasal vowel in cinq and un.

For speakers who have four nasal vowels, the phrase un bon vin blanc (a good white wine) include all four. For those who only have three nasal vowels, the phrase has three because un and vin have the same nasal vowel.

The words brin (stalk) and brun (brown) sound the same for speakers who only have three nasal vowels. For speakers who have four nasal vowels, they sound different. Belgium and Canada have four nasal vowels and thus retain the earlier pronunciation in words such as un.

The numbers of French nasal vowels depends on the dialect. In Belgium and Canada, speakers have four nasal vowels. In France, however, many speakers use the same vowels in words such as brin and brun. The result is that many French speakers from France only use three nasal vowels.

Equatoguinean Spanish

Equatoguinean Spanish refers to the Spanish of Equatorial Guinea. It is the only African country in which Spanish is an official language. The phonology of Equatoguinean Spanish is distinct.

The distinction between casa (house) and caza (hunting) is maintained. The word casa has a voiceless alveolar fricative, and the word caza (hunting) has a voiceless interdental fricative. It is a distinction that occurs in Castilian Spanish but not in Latin American.

In words such as nada (nothing) and todo (everything), the intervocalic consonant is not an interdental fricative. It is an alveolar flap or plosive. The process of spirantization does not occur.

The distinction between the alveolar flap of caro (expensive) and carro (car) is neutralized. In Ecuatoguinean Spanish both words are pronounced with an alveolar trill.

The alveolar fricative /s/ is pronounced in all positions. Unlike in many varieties of Spanish, the /s/ in words such as fresco (fresh) and dos (two) is never glottalized or deleted.

The Spanish of Equatorial Guinea maintains the distinction of the interdental fricative and alveolar fricative of Castilian Spanish. However, unlike in standard Spanish, the distinction between the alveolar flap and alveolar trill is neutralized, and the voiced alveolar plosive does not become a fricative intervocalically.

Use of Pronouns in European and Brazilian Portuguese

European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese use pronouns differently. In European Portuguese it is very common to place pronouns after the verb. In Brazilian Portuguese, however, it is common to place them before the verb. Another difference is that Brazilian Portuguese often uses the same pronouns in both subject and object position.

The sentence I saw them is Vi-os in European Portuguese. The subject pronoun eu is not needed because the verb vi is only used with the first person singular. The pronoun is placed after the verb. However, in Brazilian Portuguese, it is common to say Eu vi eles. The word eles is also used in subject position such as in the sentence Eles são vizinhos, which means They are neighbours.

The sentence I saw them yesterday and gave them presents is expressed differently in European Portuguese and Brazilian Portuguese. In European Portuguese it is Ontem vi-os e dei-lhes presentes. However, in Brazilian Portuguese it is Ontem eu vi eles e dei presentes para eles. 

Compare the sentence Yesterday I saw you in the park in the two varieties of Portuguese. In European Portuguese it is Ontem vi-te no parque, and in Brazilian Portuguese it is Ontem eu te vi no parque. The pronoun follows the verb in the European Portuguese version, but precedes it in the Brazilian Portuguese version.

Let us compare two more sentences. The sentence I love you is Amo-te in European Portuguese. In Brazilian Portuguese, it is Eu te amo. The pronoun follows the verb in the European Portuguese version, but it precedes the verb in the Brazilian version.

The use of pronouns is different in European and Brazilian Portuguese. In European Portuguese, it is common to place the pronoun after the verb, but in Brazilian Portuguese, it is common to place it before the verb. The subject pronoun is dropped more often in European Portuguese. Another difference is that Brazilian Portuguese often uses the same pronouns in subject and object position, but European Portuguese does not.

Sentences With And and But

The co-ordinating conjunctions and and but are often used to combine clauses. They are placed between independent clauses to create compound sentences. Let us look at a few compound sentences with the two conjunctions.

Compare the following two sentences:

1a) It was hot yesterday, and today it is cold.

1b) It was hot yesterday, but today it is cold.

The meaning of the two sentences is a bit different. In (1b), the conjunction but expresses contrast. The speaker may be surprised that the weather has changed. However, in (1a), the speaker expresses no surprise.

The following sentences only differ in the use of the conjunction:

2a) I like tea, and she likes coffee.

2b) I like tea, but she likes coffee.

The first sentence expresses two preferences, but does not contrast them. In the second sentence, the use of the conjunction but emphasizes the difference between the two preferences.

The final pair of sentences again illustrates the difference.

3a) They like to have breakfast early, and they want to have breakfast at eight.

3b) They like to have breakfast early, but they want to have breakfast at eight.

In both sentences, it is clear that they like to have breakfast early. However, (3b) expresses a contrast. It appears that the speaker does not consider eight o'clock an early breakfast. In (3a), however, the speaker makes no judgement and may consider eight o'clock an early breakfast. In (3a), the speaker does not imply that eight is not an early breakfast, but in (3b), the speaker does.

Many compound sentences are formed with the conjunctions and and but. Though they can combine identical clauses, the meaning of the two sentences is not identical. The conjunction and is neutral about the meaning of the individual clauses, but but can be used by the speaker to highlight contrast, indicate surprise and also disagreement.

Newfoundland English

Newfoundland English is a variety of English that is spoken in Newfoundland. The English spoken in the province of Newfoundland is very distinct from that of the rest of Canada. However, many Newfoundlanders speak a variety of English that is similar to standard Canadian English. The English spoken in Newfoundland can vary significantly from one speaker to another.

Newfoundland English is mainly rhotic. However, in certain regions of the country, it is not rhotic. This is different from standard Canadian English, which is rhotic.

In the western part of Newfoundland, initial fricative voicing occurs. The result is that a phrase such as a fine summer is pronounced with a /v/ in fine and a z/ in zummer.

H-dropping is common in many parts of Newfoundland. Words such as hat, here and hunter are often pronounced without the initial consonant.

Final consonant clusters are often simplified. For example, the words gold, shift and west are often pronounced without the final consonant.

In many parts of Newfoundland, the lateral is not velarized. This feature is also common in Irish English. For example, the word all can be pronounced without velarization of the lateral, unlike in other varieties of Canadian English.

Another common feature of Newfoundland English is the pronunciation of the interdental fricative as a plosive. For example, the words these and those are often pronounced with /d/, and the words thick and thin are often pronounced with /t/.

The vowels of Newfoundland English can also be distinct. In words such as mother, many Newfoundlanders use the low back vowel and in words such as father, many Newfoundlanders use the low central vowel rather than the low back vowel of standard Canadian English.

The English spoken in Newfoundland is distinct from the variety of English spoken in the rest of Canada. It is a variety of English that has been influenced significantly by the English of the West Country and of Ireland. It was the last province to join Canada, in 1949.

Old English Letter Ash

In Old English, the letter æ was pronounced ash. The pronuncation varied from the low front vowel of cat to the mid front vowel of ten. Though it is no longer used in English, it is used in Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic and Faroese.

Many English words used to be spelt with the letter æ. Examples include encyclopædia, hyæna, musæum, mediæval and phænomenon. However, the letter æ only survived until the thirteenth century.

Though the letter æ was used in Old English, it is no longer part of the English alphabet. However, it is used by the International Phonetic Alphabet and represents a low front unrounded vowel. It is also used in the alphabets of other Germanic languages.

Myers-Briggs Personality Types

The Myers-Briggs personality types are determined by a questionnaire. They indicate different psychological preferences regarding the way people perceive the world and make decisions. The test assigns a binary value to each of four categories: introversion or extraversion, sensing or intuition, thinking or feeling and judging or perceiving. 

One letter is taken from each category to produce a four-letter test result. Examples include ESFP and INTJ. The test was developed by two Americans, Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers. They were inspired by the book Psychological Types written by Karl Jung.

Karl Jung speculated that people experience the world with four principal psychological functions- sensing, intuition, feeling and thinking. In his view, one of the four functions is dominant in a person most of the time. According to the Myers-Briggs test, each person has one preferred quality from each category, which produces 16 types.

The 16 types are indicated by an abbreviation of letters. They are the initial letters of the four type preferences with the exception of intuition, which uses the abbreviation N to distinguish it from introversion. 

The 16 personality types are the following:

ENTJ ENTP ENFJ ENFP

ESTJ ESTP ESFJ ESFP

INTJ INTP INFJ INFP

ISTJ ISTP ISFJ ISFP

The Myers-Briggs test does not measure aptitude. It simply indicates the preference of one quality in each category. However, the test does not indicate the degree to which a person prefers one quality over another. Nevertheless, Isabel Myers considered the direction of the preference to be more important than the degree of the preference.

French Homophones

French is a language with many homophones. Common examples of homophones in English include flour/flower, meat/meet and son/sun. However, French also has many homophones.

Here is a list of French homophones:

auteur/hauteur (author/height)

dans/dent (in/tooth)

guère/guerre (hardly/war)

maire/mer/mère (mayor/sea/mother)

pain/pin (bread/pine)

peau/pot (skin/pot)

renne/reine (reindeer/queen)

cent/sang/sans (hundred/blood/without)

sou/sous (cent/under)

ver/verre/vers/vert (worm/glass/towards/green)

The list illlustrates that French is a language of many homophones.  Many of the words from the list have silent letters. Though the words are spelt differently, they sound the same. 

Uvular Fricative of Eifel German

In Standard German post-vocalic /r/ is vocalic. It is pronounced similarly to the schwa in English. However, in an area of western Germany known as the Eifel area, it can be realized as a voiceless uvular fricative. The voiceless uvular fricative occurs before voiceless consonants.

The following words can be pronounced with the voiceless uvular fricative in Eifel German:

Berg (mountain)

dort (there)

hart (hard)

Karte (map)

Korb (basket)

Park (park)

Pferd (horse)

Sport (sport)

stark (strong)

Verb (verb)

The words Berg, Korb, Pferd and Verb end with voiceless consonants. This is the result of word-final devoicing. The word-final voiceless consonants create the environment necessary for the realization of the voiceless uvular fricative. The use of the voiceless uvular fricative before voiceless consonants is a feature of Eifel German.

Thought-Thaw Split in Cockney English

Cockney English is a well-known variety of English that is spoken in London. One of the distinctive features of Cockney is the thought-thaw split. The word thought is pronounced with a diphthong which consists of a mid back rounded tense vowel and a high back rounded lax vowel. However, the word thaw is pronounced with a diphthong which consists of a mid back rounded lax vowel and a schwa. The first diphthong occurs word-medially and the second occurs word-finally.

Words such as thought, taught, force, north, board, pause, clause and sword are pronounced with the combination of the mid back rounded tense  vowel and high back rounded law vowel. In contrast, words such as north, door, force, four, saw, bored, paws and claws have the mid back rounded law vowel and schwa. Though words such as bored and paws do not have a word-final vowel, grammatical endings do not affect the pronunciation. The result is that paw/paws and bore/bored have the same vowel.

In most varieties of English, word pairs such as board/bored, sword/soared, clause/claws and pause/paws sound the same. However, that is not the case in Cockney English. The word pairs are pronounced distinctly. In the first word of each pair, the first component of the diphthong is pronounced with a higher vowel than in the second word of the pair.

Many features serve to distinguish Cockney English from other varieties of English. One of the distinctive features is undoubtedly the thought-thaw split. It allows Cockney to distinguish words which are pronounced identically in most other varieties of English.

Two Finnish Words for Or

The word or is expressed with two forms in Finnish. They are tai and vai. The word vai is only used in questions.

Only the word tai is used in statements. For example, Hän nimensä oli Marja tai Martta means Her name was Marja or Martta. There are only two options, Marja or Martta.

In questions both tai and vai are used. The question Haluatko sokeria vai kermaa? means Do you want sugar or cream? The listener has four options. They are a) sugar b) cream c) both and d) neither. However, in the question Haluatko kahvia vai teetä? (Do you want coffee or tea?), the listener has two options. They are a) coffee or b) tea.

Let us look at two more examples. The question Puhuuko hän englantia tai saksaa? (Does he speak English or German) can be answered in three ways. They are a) He speaks English b) He speaks German c) He speaks neither. However, in the question Puhuuko hän englantia tai saksaa?, the listener has two options. They are a) English or b) German.

For yes/no questions, tai is used. In the question, Can you come on Monday or Tuesday?, tai is used if the answer is Yes, I can or No, I can't. However, if the answer is I can come on Monday or I can come on Tuesday, vai is used.

The conjunction vai is only used in questions, not in statements. It is used for questions in which the listener must focus on the options. However, the conjunction tai is used in situations in which the focus is on affirmation or negation of the question. The use of tai and vai in Finnish clarifies questions that may be ambiguous in other languages.

Word-Final Palatalization in Swedish

The palatal glide is very common in Swedish. Unlike in English, in which it only occurs syllable-finally in diphthongs, the Swedish palatal glide can occur word-finally in combination with liquids. Here are ten words which end with the palatal glide:

arg (angry)

detalj (detail)

familj (family)

färg (colour)

helg (weekend)

korg (basket)

medalj (medal)

sorg (sorrow)

varg (wolf)

älg (elk)

The use of the word-final palatal glide after liquids does not occur in the closely related Danish and Norwegian languages. For example, colour is farve in Danish and farge in Norwegian, and family is familie in Danish and Norwegian. Unlike in Danish and Norwegian, Swedish phonotactics allow the use of the word-final palatal glide following liquids.

Words with Variable Positions in English Sentences

Many English words have fixed positions in English sentences. Prepositions are placed at the beginning of prepositional phrases and articles come before nouns. However, for certain words, more than one position is possible.

The word please can be placed at the beginning or end of imperatives. Both Please hurry! and Hurry, please! are correct. When it is placed at the end, it sounds more emphatic.

The comparative adjective more can come before or after the noun. For example, both ten more minutes and ten minutes more are correct. However, in phrases such as more time and more quickly, the word more must be placed before.

Another word which has more than one possible position is often. The sentences Often he arrives early, He often arrives early and He arrives early often are all correct. The most common of the three is He often arrives early.

The phrase half an hour can also be expressed with a half hour. The first consonant of hour is silent, which is the reason that the form an is required.

Separable phrasal verbs also allow different positions in the sentence. The sentences I want to take off my shoes, I want to take my shoes off, I should put on my sweater and I should put my sweater on are all correct. When the phrasal verb is separated, it sounds a little more casual that when it is not separated, but the meaning is identical.

It is clear from the examples that many English words have more than one possible position in the sentence. The phrase half an hour is unusual because articles usually precede adjectives. However, the phrase a half hour follows the usual order for articles and adjectives.

Tone Languages

Tone languages are languages with words that differ in their tones. The different tones convey different meaning. There are no European languages that are classified as tonw languages. However, many Asian and African languages are tone languages.

Languages that are tone languages include Mandarin, Cantonese, Thai, Lao, Vietnamese, Burmese, Yoruba, Igbo and Zulu. The number of tones varies from one language to another. Mandarin has four tones, Thai has five and Vietnamese has six.

The four tones of Mandarin are the following:

Tone 1 high level

Tone 2 Rising

Tone 3 Falling-Rising

Tone 4 Falling

Many languages are tone languages. However, European languages are not among them.. Tone languages use different tones to convey different meanings in words.

Two Hungarian Words For Red

The word red has two words in Hungarian. One is vörös, and the other is piros. Though vörös can be considered a darker shade of red, the difference is largely contextual.

The word vörös is often used for the colour in nature, plants and animals. Examples include vörös haj (red hair), vörös róka (red fox) and vörös vér (red blood). It is also used in vörös zászló (red flag).

The word piros is often used for man-made objects. Examples include piros lámpa (red lamp), piros autó (red car) and piros toll (red pen). It is also used in piros levél (red leaf).

With bor (wine), vörös is used, but with alma (apple), piros is used. Though rózsa (rose) and tulipán (tulip) are both flowers, they do not use the same word. The word vörös is used with rózsa and piros is used with tulipán. 

No universal rule can be given for the use of vörös and piros. However, vörös is often used for the colour in nature, plants and animals and piros is often used for man-made objects. The words vörös and piros are both common words for red in Hungarian. The use of two words for red makes Hungarian unique among languages.

Binary Features

Binary features in linguistics are used to classify sounds. They are called binary because they have the feature, or they do not. Sounds with the feature have the + symbol, and sounds without the feature have the - symbol.

All sounds can be divided into voiced and voiceless. Consonants such as /b/ and /g/ are voiced, and /p/ and /k/ are voiceless. The consonants /b/ and /g/ are [+voice], and the sounds /p/ and /k/ are [-voice].

Vowels can be divided into rounded and unrounded. The vowels /e/ and /i/ are unrounded, and the vowels /o/ and /u/ are rounded. The vowels /e/ and /i/ are thus [-round], and the vowels /o/ and /u/ are [+round}.

All vowels are vocalic, and all consonants are consonantal. Semi-vowels such as the first segment of water and the first segment of year are neither vocalic nor consonantal. Though they have properties of both vowels and consonants, they belong to neither category. Here is a comparison:

vowels: [+vocalic] [-consonantal]

consonants [-vocalic] [+consonantal] 

semi-vowels [-vocalic] [-consonantal] 

The consonants /b/ and /m/ are both plosives and they are both bilabial. However, one feature can distinguish the two. The consonant /b/ is [-nasal] and the consonant /m/ is [+nasal].

The vowels /i/ and /I/ are both high front unrounded vowels. One feature can distinguish the two. The vowel /i/ is tense, and the vowel /I/ is lax. With binary features, the vowel /i/ is [+tense] and  the vowel /I/ is [-tense].

Binary features are features that are mutually exclusive. Sounds which are voiced cannot be unvoiced, and sounds which are voiceless cannot be voiced. Binary features are very useful for the classification of speech sounds.

Translated Song (If You Just Want)

Per Gessle is a famous Swedish singer. He and Marie Fredriksson were a pop duo called Roxette, and they sang in English. One of his most beautiful Swedish songs is Om du bara vill (If you just want). Here are the lyrcs of the song along with my English translation.

Om du bara vill

Lägg din arm omkring min hals så du är nära.   

Det finns inget mer ikväll du måste bära.

Fäll ut ditt hår en silvertår.

Lägg ditt huvud på min kudde.

Om du bara vill så säg till.

Jag kan vara din vän när natten faller

Om du bara vill öppna din dörr

Och bara våga släppa någon in.

Det bor en sorg i dina ögon som jag inte når.

Det bor en sorg i ditt hjärta som är svår att förstå.

Hur kom den dit, hur kom den dit?

Den är svart som svart granit.

Om du bara vill så säg till.

Jag kan vara din vän när natten faller

Om du bara vill öppna din dörr

Och bara våga släppa någon in.

Om du bara vill, så säg till, säg till, säg till.

Om du bara vill så säg till.

Jag kan vara din vän när natten faller

Om du bara vill öppna din dörr

Och börjar andas släpper någon in.

Om du bara vill så säg till.

Jag kan vara din vän när mörkret faller.

Om du bara vill öppna din dörr

Och börjar andas släpper någon in.

Om du bara vill

Öppna din dörr 

Och börjar andas släpper någon in.

Om du bara vill (om du bara vill) så  säg till.

Jag kan vara din vän (jag kan vara din vän) när mörkret faller

Om du bara vill öppna din dörr

Och bara våga släppa någon in.

If you just want

Put your arm around my neck so you're near.

There is nothing more this evening you must bear.

Let your hair fall down a silver tear.

Lay your head on my pillow.

If you just want, then say so.

I can be your friend when night falls.

If you just want, open your door

And just dare to let someone in.

There lives a sorrow in your eyes that I don't reach.

There lives a sorrow in your heart that is difficult to understand.

How did it come there, how did it come there?

It's black like black granite.

If you just want, then say so.

I can be your friend when night falls.

If you just want, open your door

And just dare to let someone in.

If you just want, then say so, say so, say so.

If you just want, then say so.

I can be your friend when night falls.

If you just want, open your door

And if you start to breathe let someone in.

If you just want, then say so.

I can be your friend when darkness falls.

If you just want, open your door

And if you start to breathe let someone in.

If you just want

Open your door

And if you start to breathe let someone in.

If you just want (if you just want), then say so.

I can be your friend (I can be your friend) when darkness falls

If you just want to open your door

And just dare to let someone in.

Pride and Prejudice

Pride and Prejudice is a famous novel by Jane Austen. The two main characters are Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy. Though they have very different backgrounds, they fall in love with one another, but before they can marry, she must overcome her prejudice and he must overcome his pride.

The novel is set in rural England at the beginning of the 19th century.  Mr. and Mrs. Bennet have five daughters, and Mrs. Bennet is very determined to find good husbands for them. The eldest sister, Jane, is very close to Elizabeth. Unlike her mother, Elizabeth is not so concerned with wealth and status. 

When Mr. Bingley arrives to look for a bride, Mrs. Bennet is very excited that one of her daughters might marry the wealthy man. In a ball organized by Mr. Bingley at his estate, Jane and Mr. Bingley are immediately attracted to one another. However, Elizabeth does not have a good impression of Mr. Darcy. She finds him cold and arrogant.

The arrival of Mr. Collins, the heir of the Bennet family's modest estate, complicates the situation. He proposes to Elizabeth, but to her mother's diappointment, she rejects his offer. Mr. Collins later marries Charlotte, Elizabeth's best friend.

Elizabeth meets Mr. Wickham, and he charms her. After the sudden departure of Mr. Bingley, Elizabeth becomes convinced that Mr. Darcy was responsible, and her anger towards him grows. During her visit to the home of Charlotte and Mr. Collins, Elizabeth meets Mr.Darcy and is shocked to hear him confess his love for her. When she rejects his proposal and he asks for a reason, she explains that he broke the heart of her sister Jane.

Mr. Darcy writes a letter to Elizabeth. He tells her that he advised Mr. Bingley not to marry Jane because he did not think Jane was truly in love with him and was pressured by her mother to marry. He also informs her of Mr. Wickham's bad intentions when he tried to marry Mr. Darcy's 15-year-old sister for her inheritance.

Shortly after receiving Mr. Darcy's letter, Elizabeth learns that Lydia, the youngest sister, has run away to be with Mr. Wickham. The news worries Elizabeth, who knows that Lydia's actions could lead to scandal and ruin her sister's reputation. She informs Mr. Darcy, who offers Mr. Wickham money to propose marriage. When Elizabeth realizes what Mr. Darcy has done, she agrees to marry.

Mr. Darcy is a wealthy landowner, who is surprised that his great wealth is not enough to impress Elizabeth. Though she has lower status, she wants to marry for love. Through his actions, he shows his love for Elizabeth and she accepts that she has misjudged him. Pride and Prejudice is a classic novel of social class, love and family.

Border of the Glottal Stop in Danish

The glottal stop is an important feature of Danish pronunciation. It allows the distinction of words that would be pronounced identically such as hund (dog) and hun (she). The word hund (dog) is pronounced with the glottal stop, but the word hun (she) is not. However, though it is used in standard Danish, it is not used in all dialects.

In dialects of southern Denmark, the glottal stop is not phonemic. Word pairs such as hun (she) and hund (dog) are pronounced identically in these dialects. The southern dialects retain an earlier pronunciation.

The phonemic glottal stop is used by most Danish speakers. In southern dialects, however, it is not used. This is illustrated in the map, which shows the border of the Danish glottal stop. The dialects to the north of the line distinguish words with the glottal stop, but the dialects to the south of the line do not.

Palatal Plosive of Canarian Spanish

The Spanish of the Canary Islands is distinct from that of the rest of Spain. Unlike in most of Spain, the voiceless interdental fricative in words such as cinco (five) is not used. Also, the alveopalatal affricate of standard Spanish is replaced with the palatal plosive.

In words such as champú (shampoo), chimenea (chimney) and chocolate (chocolate), most Spanish speakers use the voiceless alveopalatal affricate. It is the combination of a homorganic fricative and plosive. The same sound exists in English and many other languages. In certain dialects the words begin not with the voiceless alveopalatal affricate but rather with the voiceless alveopalatal fricative. The same sound exists in English and is used in words such as shell, ship and shoulder. 

However, in Canarian Spanish the words are pronounced with the palatal plosive. It is a consonant with a more retracted pronunciation than that of the alveopalatal affricate. It also has a different manner of articulation because it is not the combination of a plosive and fricative but a plosive only.

In Canarian Spanish, the alveopalatal affricate is not used. It is replaced with the alveopalatal plosive. Although the Spanish of the Canary Islands differs from that of Spain in many ways, the use of the voiceless palatal plosive is unique because it does not occur in other varieties of Spanish.

Hungarian Word-Final Vowels

Standard Hungarian has fourteen vowels. They can be long or short. In word-final position, three vowels are rare.

Vowels which rarely appear word-finally in Hungarian are the short mid back vowel, short mid front rounded vowel and short high front rounded vowel. In these positions the long mid back vowel, the long mid front rounded vowel and long high front rounded vowel appear.

Here are examples:

esernyő (umbrella)

eső (rain)

fésű (comb)

folyó (river)

fű (grass)

gyűrű (ring)

hó  (snow)

keserű (bitter)

szőlő (grape)

tó (lake)

Hungarian places restricitons on the vowels which can appear word-finally. Only the long front rounded vowels and the long mid front vowel are common at the end of the word. In these positions the short front rounded vowels and short mid back vowel are rare. With the other vowels, both the short and long ones can appear word-finally.

Spanish Coda Consonants

Spanish is very restrictive with coda consonants. In native words, only /ð/, /l/, /n/. /r/ and /s/ are common. The Castilian Spanish dialect also has the voiceless interdental fricative /θ/. Here are ten words with these five coda consonants:

edad (age)

sed (thirst)

miel (honey)

sal (salt)

con (with)

jamón (ham)

flor (flower)

mar (sea)

dos (two)

más (more)

In Castilian Spanish, the words feliz (happy) and juez (judge) have the voiceless interdental fricative. The /s/ can be replaced with /h/ in dialects such as Andalusian and Caribbean. In these cases, the final consonant in words such as dos and más can be [h].

Unlike languages such as English, Spanish does not allow many consonants in the syllable coda. This is true of not only Spanish but other Romance languages such as Italian and Portuguese. In most varieties of Spanish, only five consonants are common in the syllable coda.

Danish Glottal Stop with Numbers

The Danish glottal stop is an important feature of Danish pronunciation. It always occurs with stressed vowels. Let us examine the use of the Danish glottal stop with the numbers from one to ten.

The Danish numbers from one to ten are:

en

to

tre

fire 

fem

seks

syv

otte 

ni 

ti

The glottal stop appears with the numbers en, to, tre, fem, syv, ni and ti. With the exception of fem, the glottal stop appears after the vowel. However, in certain cases, the glottal stop appears after the consonant. This is the case with fem. In this case the glottal stop appears after the nasal. 

The numbers fire, seks and otte are pronounced without the glottal stop. Seven of the ten numbers are pronounced with the glottal stop, and three are not. This indicates that the glottal stop is a common feature of Danish pronunciation.

In certain minimal pairs the absence of presence of the glottal stop determines meaning. One example is hun (she) and hund (dog). The word hund has the glottal stop, and it is realized after the nasal.

Many Danish words are pronounced with the glottal stop. It can occur after both vowels and consonants in stressed syllables. In minimal pairs, the presence or absence of the glottal stop changes the meaning.

Ten Compound Words from Different Languages

Compound words are common not only in English but also in many other languages. They are very useful for forming words. Let us look at ten compound words from different languages.

abrelatas (Spanish) can opener

Handschuh (German) glove

lábújj (Hungarian) toe

maailma (Finnish) world

pindakaas (Dutch) peanut butter

Regenschirm (German) umbrella

smörgåsbord (Swedish) smorgasbord

solros (Swedish) sunflower

sommerfugl (Danish/Norwegian) butterfly

surlendemain (French) day after tomorrow

Now we can analyze the compound words.

abrelatas = abre + latas (open + cans)

Handschuh = Hand + Schuh (hand + shoe)

lábújj = láb + újj (foot + finger)

maailma = maa + ilma (land + air)

pindakaas = pinda + kaas (peanut + cheese)

Regenschirm = Regen + Schirm (rain + shield)

smörgåsbord = smörgås + bord (sandwich + table)

solros = sol + ros (sun + rose)

sommerfugl = sommer + fugl (summer + bird)

surlendemain = sur + lendemain (over + the next day)

Dutch uses the word cheese to refer to peanut butter. Danish and Norwegian use a compound for butterfly, but unlike English which combines butter and fly, they combine the words summer and bird. The word glove is not a compound in English, but it is in German and combines the words hand and shoe. The word smorgasbord is used in English, but it is not a compound in English because it is borrowed from Swedish.

Though compound words are common in many languages, they are often used differently. Compound words in one language are often not compounds in another. In certain cases, languages use compound words to refer to the same object, but the internal composition of the compound words is different. The list illustrates a few compound words in different languages.

Derivational Affixes of English

Derivational affixes can be used to create many words. Unlike inflectional affixes, derivational affixes often change the grammatical category. In linguistics, derivation refers to the creation of a new word.

The affix -dom can attach to king to create the word kingdom. Since both words are nouns, the affix does not create a new grammatical category. However, the two words have distinct meanings. One refers to a person and the other to a place.

The affix -y attaches to nouns and creates adjectives. It is a very productive affix because it creates many words. They include cloudy, dirty, fussy, icy, lucky, rainy, snowy, stormy, sunny and windy.  

Another productive derivational affix is the prefix -un. It does not create a new grammatical category, but it creates a word that is opposite in meaning to the original. Examples include unfriendly, unhappy, unhealthy, unintentional, unkind, uninteresting, unlikely, unreliable, unsure and unusual.

The derivational suffix -ness is also very productive. It attaches to adjectives to create nouns. Examples include darkness, fitness, greatness, happiness, illness, kindness, sadness, shyness, sleepiness and weakness.

Derivational affixes are common in the formation of words in English. They can be prefixes and suffixes and they often change the grammatical category of the word. Derivational affixes can combine with inflectional affixes in the same word. In the word neighbourhoods, the derivational affix-hood is followed by the inflectional affix -s.

Sound Correspondence Between Spanish and Catalan

Catalan is a Romance language with word-final obstruent devoicing. In Catalan, the city Madrid is pronounced with a word-final [t]. A number of Spanish words with a d have a t in Catalan. Here is a list:

ciudad ciutat (city)

comunidad comunitat (community)

edad edat (age)

felicidad felicitat (happiness)

libertad llibertat (liberty)

salud salut (health)

sed set (thirst)

unidad unitat (unity)

universidad universitat (university)

verdad veritat (truth)

The final consonant of the Spanish words is the voiced interdental fricative [ð]. However, the final consonant of the Catalan words is the voiceless dental/alveolar plosive [t]. The contrast does not occur only word-finally. It can also occur word-medially, i.e., ciudad/ciutat, verdad/veritat. The [ð] of Spanish is often [t] in Catalan.

Aspiration In English

English voiceless plosives can be aspirated or unaspirated. They are aspirated when they are the only segment of the syllable onset and they precede a stressed vowel. When they occur after [s], aspiration is blocked.

Aspiration occurs in words such as cat, kite, pot and top. It also occurs in the second syllable of potato. No aspiration occurs in words such as apple, lucky, spot and stop.

English plosives can be divided into two categories, voiced and voiceless. However, voiceless segments can be divided into aspirated and unaspirated. Aspirated plosives only occur when they are the only segment of the syllable onset and they are followed by a stressed vowel. Aspirated and unaspirated plosives thus never occur in the same environment.

Preaspiration In Icelandic

Preaspiration is an important feature of Icelandic pronunciation. Many double consonants and consonant clusters are pronounced with a glottal fricative between them and the preceding vowel. It does not occur with word-initial consonant clusters because the first segment must be a vowel.

The phrase Ekki meira, takk means No more, thanks. In the phrase, preaspiration occurs in the words ekki and takk. In the sentence Ég er svo heppinn (I am so happy), preaspiration occurs in the first syllable of the word heppinn. Preaspiration also occurs with consonant clusters. For example, in the sentence Íslenskt vatn er best (Icelandic water is the best), preaspiration occurs in the word vatn.

Preaspiration is equivalent to an [h] sound before obstruents. Though it is relatively uncommon in the languages of the world, it is common in Icelandic. Besides Icelandic, it is also prominent in Faroese and in a few dialects of Norwegian and Swedish. It is not phonemically contrastive in any language, but it is very common in Icelandic.

Two Danish relative pronouns

Danish has two relative pronouns, der and som. In English they can be translated as that, which or who. However, they are not always interchangeable. The word der can only be used as the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Here are a few examples:

Jeg har en ven, der elsker øl.

Jeg har en ven, som elsker øl.

The two sentences mean I have a friend who loves beer.

In the next example, only som can be used.

Jeg har en ny ven, som du må møde.

I have a new friend who you must meet.

In the first example, the relative pronoun is the subject of the subordinate clause. For this reason both der and som can be used. In the second example, the relative pronoun  is the object of the subordinate clause. For this reason only som can be used.

The Danish relative pronouns der and som can both be used when they are the subject of the subordinate clause. When the relative pronoun is the object of the subordinate clause, only som can be used. The word som is thus used more extensively than der.

Pronunciation Differences Between Dutch and German

Dutch and German are Germanic languages with many similarities. However, the pronunciation of the two languages is not so similar. Many words with the same meaning and spelling are pronounced differently. 

Let us compare ten words in the two languages. The Dutch words are on the left and the German words are on the right.

acht acht (eight) 

elf elf (eleven)

geld Geld (money)

kind Kind (child)

klein klein (small)

licht Licht (light)

museum Museum (museum)

spiegel Spiegel (mirror)

titel Titel (title)

weg Weg (way)

In Dutch acht has a low back vowel, and in German it has a low central vowel.

The lateral in elf is velarized in Dutch but not in German.

In geld/Geld  Dutch has a voiceless velar fricative, but German has a voiced velar plosive. The lateral is velarized in Dutch.

The plosive of kind/Kind is not aspirated in Dutch, but it is aspirated in German.

The plosive of klein is not aspirated in Dutch. The first component of the diphthong is a mid front lax vowel in Dutch, but it is a low central vowel in German.

In Dutch licht has a voiceless velar fricative, but in German it is a voiceless palatal fricative.

The word museum/Museum has a voiceless alveolar fricative in Dutch and a voiced alveolar fricative in German. The first and last vowels are front rounded in Dutch, but they are back rounded in German.

The first consonant in spiegel/Spiegel is a voiceless alveolar fricative in Dutch and a voiceless alveopalatal fricative in German. The velar consonant is a voiceless fricative in Dutch, but it is a voiced plosive in German.

The first consonant of titel/Titel is unaspirated in Dutch, but it is aspirated in German. The lateral is velarized in Dutch but not in German.

The vowel in weg/Weg is mid front lax in Dutch, but it is mid front tense in German. The final consonant is a voiceless velar fricative in Dutch, but it is a voiceless velar plosive in German.

The examples illustrate that the pronunciation of Dutch and German is quite different. Unlike German, Dutch lacks aspirated consonants. It also lacks the voiceless palatal fricative of German. Another difference is that Dutch lacks the voiced velar plosive of German and uses the voiceless velar fricative instead.

The Pronunciation of Five Words With The Trap-Bath Split

The trap-bath split refers to a historical development which took place in England. Speakers with the split pronounce the word trap with a front vowel and bath with a back vowel. However, speakers who lack the split pronounce the two words with the same vowel. In parts of southwestern England, the words trap and bath are pronounced with different vowels, but the different is not qualitative. It is quantitative because the vowel in trap is a short front vowel and the vowel in bath is a long front vowel.

The trap-bath split divided England into two parts. Most speakers in the north lack the split, and most speakers in the south have the split. In the USA, almost all speakers lack the split. 

In all of England, there are five words which are pronounced with the low back vowel. They are banana, calf, can't, half, and rather. The word banana is pronounced with the back vowel in the stressed second syllable. In the other syllables, the schwa is used.

In the USA, the five words are pronounced with the low front vowel. However, a number of Americans use the low back vowel in the word rather. Regardless, the use of the back vowel is definitely less common.

The difference in the pronunciation of the five words in England and the USA may reflect that the trap-bath split became common in England after the colonial period. American English often preserves features that are no longer common in England. One example is the rhotic accent that is more common in the English of the USA than in the English of England.

In England the words banana, calf, can't, half and rather are all pronounced the same. They all have the low back vowel. In the USA, they are pronounced with the low front vowel, but a number of American English speakers use the low back vowel in the word rather. It may be that the low front vowel in those words reflects an older pronunciation of English.

French Version of O Canada

The national anthem O Canada was composed by French-Canadian Calixa Lavalée. It is sung in both English and French. The lyrics of the French version are quite different from those of the English version. To compare, I will provide first the English lyrics followed by my translation of the French lyrics.

O Canada

O Canada, our home and native land,

True patriot love in all thy sons command.

With glowing hearts we see thee rise,

The true north strong and free.

From far and wide, O Canada,

We stand on guard for thee.

God keep our land glorious and free,

O Canada, we stand on guard for thee,

O Canada, we stand on guard for thee!

O Canada

O Canada, land of our forefathers,

Your brow is surrounded by flower garlands

Because your arm knows how to carry the sword.

It knows how to carry the cross.

Your history is an epic of the most brilliant exploits.

And your valour, steeped by faith,

Will protect our homes and our rights,

Will protect our homes and our rights.

The official English version of O Canada has replaced thy sons with of us, but I have kept the original lyrics because I prefer them.

Adverbs of Frequency in Negative Sentences

Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb of affirmative sentences. However, in negative sentences, the adverbs often and usually can be placed before the auxiliary verb or before the main verb. Let us consider a few examples.

The sentences He doesn't often consider the consequences of his actions and He often doesn't consider the consequences of his actions are both correct. However, the two sentences are not identical in meaning. The first sentence means that he seldom considers the consequences of his actions, and the second means that he often fails to consider the consequences of his actions.

Let us consider two more sentences. She usually doesn't have a big breakfast and She doesn't usually have a big breakfast are both correct. In the first sentence the meaning is that it is typical for the person not to have a big breakfast, and in the second the meaning is that it is not typical for the person to have a big breakfast. The first sentence can be paraphrased as follows: It is common for her not to have a big breakfast, and the second sentence can be paraphrased as follows: It is not common for her to have a big breakfast. The sentences have different scopes of negation.

In affirmative sentences it is common to put adverbs of frequency before the main verb. With negative sentences, this is not always the case. The adverbs often and usually can be placed before the auxiliary verb or before the main verb. 

Reflexive Pronouns of English

The reflexive pronouns of English end with self in the singular and selves in the plural. However, the paradigm is inconsistent. With the third person singular and plural, the object pronoun is used, but the with first and second persons, the possessive adjective is used.

The object pronoun is used with himself and themselves. The reflexive pronoun herself is ambiguous because the word her can be both the possessive adjective and the objective pronoun. However, if the reflexive pronoun herself is formed in the same manner as himself, the reflexive pronoun herself is formed with the object pronoun.

The reflexive pronouns myself, yourself, ourselves and yourselves are formed with the possessive adjective. The object pronoun only occurs with the third person singular and plural. Forms such as itself and oneself  contain the object pronoun, but it may be that the original forms had the possessive adjective. If this was the case, they became itself and oneself because of degemination.

The reflexive pronouns of English reflect that language is not completely regular. If it were, all the reflexive pronouns of English would be formed with the possessive adjective or with the object pronoun. However, this is not the case. Most of the reflexive pronouns of English are formed with the possessive adjective, but a few are formed with the object pronoun.

Common Words in English Compound Nouns

English has many compound nouns. Words such as ice cream and shopping centre are written as two separate words, but textbook and goldfish are written as just one word. Many compound nouns can be formed with common words. Here are examples:

backache earache headache heartache stomachache toothache 

baseball basketball eyeball fishball football handball meatball snowball volleyball

blackboard cardboard keyboard scoreboard skateboard snowboard surfboard whiteboard

birdhouse boathouse doghouse greenhouse loghouse hothouse

ballroom bathroom bedroom classroom restroom showroom sunroom washroom

The examples illustrate that many compounds can be generated with the words ache, ball, board, house and room. The word heartache does not refer to physical pain but to emotional. In Canadian English, the word washroom is often used instead of bathroom. Words such as baseball, basketball and football refer not just to the sport but also the ball.

As in all Germanic languages, English has many compound nouns. Many of them consist of two nouns which combine to form one word. Words such as dining room and living room are written as two separate words, but bathroom and bedroom are written as one.