Instruments of the Orchestra

The typical symphony orchestra includes instruments from four classes. They are the woodwinds, brass, percussion and strings. The symphony orchestra combines instruments from these groups.

The woodwinds include the flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon. Among the brass instruments we have the horn, trumpet, trombone and tuba. Percussion instruments include the piano, bass drum and tambourine, and the strings include the violin, viola, cello and harp. The guitar is also one of the stringed instruments, but the guitar is a quiet instrument and thus never used as part of the traditional orchestra. It may however be used by solists.

The number of musicians in a performance may vary from 70 to over 100 musicians. A chamber orchestra is a smaller ensemble with about 50 musicians or fewer. The orchestras of Baroque music tend to be smaller than those of Romantic music.

Instruments such as the piano may be included in a group called the keyboard section. This also includes the organ and the harpsichord. Sometimes instruments such as the piano and the harp may even stand alone.

Many instruments are used to form an orchestra. They are divided into four groups or in some cases into five by including the keyboard section. The large instrumental ensemble called an orchestra includes instruments from the woodwinds, brass, percussion and strings. It is representative of classical music.

Trap/Bath Split in Australian English

Australian English is often associated with the trap/bath split. However, the application of the trap/bath split varies significantly among speakers. A study by Crystal (1995) illustrated regional variation in the use of the trap/bath split.

Here is a table which illustrates the use of the back vowel in a word such as cart rather than the front vowel of a word such as cat.

	Hobart	Melbourne	Brisbane	Sydney	Adelaide
graph	0%	30%	56%	70%	86%
chance	0%	60%	25%	80%	86%
demand	10%	78%	78%	90%	100%
dance	10%	35%	11%	30%	86%
castle	60%	30%	33%	100%	86%

The chart reveals that the application of the trap/bath split in Australia varies from region to region. In Hobart, the back vowel was never realized in graph or chance. The city in which the back vowel was realized most often was Adelaide. In the word demand, speakers from Adelaide applied the back vowel in all cases. Speakers from Adelaide and Sydney applied the back vowel to the five words more than 50% of the time, but speakers from Hobart, Melbourne and Brisbane favoured the front vowel. 

With the exception of Hobart, the back vowel was favoured in the word demand. This was especially true in Sydney and Adelaide. With the exception of Adelaide, the front vowel was definitely favoured in the pronunciation of dance. The back vowel was applied far more frequently among speakers of Adelaide than among speakers of Hobart. However, more than half of the speakers from Hobart applied the back vowel in the word castle.

The table illustrates that the trap/bath split is not applied consistently in Australian English. It varies not only among speakers but also among regions. Based on the table, the city which applied the trap/bath split most consistently was Adelaide.

Lancashire Dialect

Lancashire is in the northwest of England. It is located north of Manchester and Liverpool. The Lancashire dialect is one of the distinctive dialects of England. It preserves the pronouns thou and thy, and it is rhotic.

Most English accents are non-rhotic, but Lancashire preserves the post-vocalic /r/. Another part of England which preserves post-vocalic /r/ is the southwest. Unlike in Received Pronunciation, the Lancashire dialect has monophthongs in words such as face and boat.

The Lancashire dialect does not have the trap/bath split. The words castle and mask are not pronounced with the back vowel of most of southern England. Other features which indicate that the Lancashire dialect is northern include the absence of the foot/strut split and the word-final lax vowel in words such as baby and city.

One of the features which makes the Lancashire dialect different from many other English dialects is the retention of post-vocalic /r/. It also retains the pronouns thou and thy. The Lancashire dialect is a conservative dialect of northwestern England.

Morning Sky

This is my latest sonnet. I hope you enjoy it.

             Morning Sky

Birdsong announces early morning sky.
Rays of sun bring their light and warmth to all.
Soft white morning clouds appear so high.
On this sunny morning no rain may fall.
Dew disappears when sunlight turns grass dry
And majestic old trees stand straight and tall.
Across shades of turquoise birds swiftly fly.
In search of warm sunlight, plants slowly crawl.
Morning sky makes beauty in nature bright
When golden rays of radiant sun appear
To replace celestial stars from last night
And wipe from blades of grass each single tear.
Morning sky paints scenes of visual delight,
Thereby bringing beauty from nature near.

Surinamese Dutch

Dutch is the official language of Suriname. It is spoken as a native language by approximately 60% of the population. Surinamese Dutch uses loanwords taken from other languages of Suriname. It also exhibits differences in pronunciation.

In Surinamese Dutch, the letter w is a labiovelar approximant. In the Dutch of the Netherlands, it is a labial approximant. The word water (water) is pronounced differently in Suriname and the Netherlands.

The /r/ is always trilled in Surinamese Dutch. Unlike in the Netherlands, it is never realized as an alveolar approximant, uvular fricative or uvular trill.

The fricatives /v/ and /z/ are fully devoiced in Surinamese Dutch. This also occurs in the Dutch of Amsterdam, but only when the fricatives are word-initial.

Another difference is that the velar fricative is pronounced with a more advanced articulation. This is also the case in the southern Netherlands and Belgium. The result is that the velar fricative is a post-palatal or palatal fricative.

Surinamese Dutch is easily understood by other Dutch speakers. It exhibits differences in vocabulary and pronunciation. One of the key differences is that the labial approximant of the Netherlands has a labiovelar articulation in Surinamese Dutch.

Definite/Indefinite Conjugation in Hungarian

The Hungarian language has two conjugations, the definite and indefinite. This is very rare in the languages of the world. Aside from Hungarian, it is also found in Khanty and Mansi.

The definite conjugation is used with transitive verbs and definite articles, and the indefinite article is used with indefinite articles and intransitive verbs. Let us illustrate with a few sentences.

Látok egy fát. (I see a tree)
Látsz egy fát. (You see a tree)
Lát egy fát. (He/she sees a tree)
Látunk egy fát. (We see a tree)
Láttok egy fát. (You see a tree)
Látnak egy fát. (They see a tree)

Látom a fát. ( I see the tree)
Látod a fát. (You see the tree)
Látja a fát. (He/she sees the tree)
Látjuk a fát. (We see the tree)
Látjátok a fát. (You see the tree)
Látják a fát. (They see the tree)

In the Hungarian sentences, we notice that the base verb see has twelve forms. To compare, the English verb see has only two forms. The Hungarian verb is highly inflected.

The definite and indefinite conjugations are rare. They occur in Hungarian and also in Khanti and Mansi, two other Uralic languages. These languages make a distinction which few languages make.

Forest of Amusement

I wrote Forest of Amusement in 1996. The main character is Miko, the younger brother of Atina, the sister who chooses the forest of knowledge I recently published Forest of Amusement, and it is now available as an e-book.

In the first chapter the reader meets Miko, who can't wait to visit the forest of amusement. He is accompanied through the forest by his friend Lantos and by Lantos's cousin, Kiki. The reader is also introduced to Kimrona, the children's guide through the large forest.

The second chapter gives the children the opportunity to experience the sensations of flight. A machine shaped like a bird descends and they step in. By using the lever and the pedals, they explore the amazing forest.

After their adventure of flight, the children play a game called Wall of Snow. At first, Miko is very confident, but he soon discovers that the game is not so easy. Teamwork is required to clear the wall.

In the fourth chapter, the children embark on a beautiful golden ship decorated with magnificent gems and silky sails. The ship ascends past the trees and then moves with tremendous speed. It takes the children on an unforgettable adventure.

The fifth chapter takes the children to a magical pond with light green and crystal clear water. A transparent object shaped like a bubble takes the children to the bottom. One of the creatures the children encounter inside the pond is a warrior fish.

In the sixth chapter, the children visit Crystal Cave. It is full of crystal plants, which make the cave surprisingly bright. Kimrona gives them white shiny swords to help them make their way through the cave.

The seventh chapter takes the children to a jungle. Here they see air flowers for the first time, and they interact with jolly jumpers, friendly animals they have never seen before. Later they enjoy a spectacular concert.

In the eight chapter, Lantos requests a game which lets him put his strength to the test. The children battle soldiers, knights, warriors, wizards, a queen and a king. Though Lantos performs very well, it is Miko who most impresses Kiki.

The forest of amusement inspires Miko for the rest of his life. Of the many stories that are told about the magical forest, his is the most famous. The adventure in the forest helps him to discover all of his potential. Though Forest of Amuement is written for children, it can also be enjoyed by adults.

Forest of Knowledge

I wrote the story Forest of Knowledge in 1996. However, after many revisions, I recently published it. It is now available as an e-book. Let me say a little about my story.

It is divided into eight chapters. In the first chapter I introduce the main characters of the story. They are Atina, her best friend Singali, Singali's brother Komo and Daras, the children's guide through the forest.

Komo isn't so interested in visiting the Forest of Knowledge. He's more interested in the Forest of Amusement, but he's also really interested in Atina, so he decides to visit the Forest of Knowledge. The two forests are really big and each adventure lasts an entire day, so visitors can only choose one forest when they visit.

In the second chapter, the characters need to solve riddles. One of the riddles is to determine which of two rocks is the rock of knowledge. The children need to think carefully to solve the riddle.

The children watch a show in the third chapter. It makes them ask deep questions about the meaning of life. Through their questions, they learn that they already have many of the answers.

The fourth chapter introduces proverbs. Similar to English proverbs, they impart great wisdom. Through the proverbs, Daras teaches the children a lot about themselves.

In the fifth chapter, the children play a game which offers them different situations. The situations are options such as the answers in multiple-choice questions. The forest doesn't take the children back into the past, but it creates images of reality. Though the situations look real, they are merely illusions.

The sixth chapter takes the children to an image of Mr. Hebek, Atina's difficult neighbour. By playing the game. Atina learns to understand her neighbour better. She also gains the knowledge to improve her relationship with him.

In the seventh chapter, the theme of space exploration is introduced. Though the children never actually leave the forest, a ship gives them the sensation of travelling a great distance through the sky and exploring a distant planet when they ascend past the tall trees. Atina remarks that most Oxos, the people of her planet Home, have little interest in space exploration.

The eighth chapter features many questions from the children. After their visit to the distant planet, the children are filled with curiosity. Later the reader learns that Atina's visit to the Forest of Knowledge not only becomes one of the most memorable adventures in her whole life, but also helps her to bring many changes to her planet.

Though Forest of Knowledge is written for children, adults can also enjoy it. The story teaches the importance of learning and of co-operating with others. The story takes the reader on a journey through a world of incredible imagination.

Variability with Pleonastic Subjects

The pleonastic subject has no meaning. It merely exists to fill the subject position. In the sentence It is Wednesday, the subject it carries no meaning. However, in Spanish the sentence is Es miércoles. Here the subject position is empty.

In many sentences the pleonastic subject does not need to be included. Let us look at examples:

Tomorrow it will be sunny.
Tomorrow will be sunny.

Yesterday was cold.
Yesterday it was cold.

In the evening will be too late for our meeting.
In the evening it will be too late for our meeting.

This morning it was very hot.
This morning was very hot.

Next week it is possible.
Next week is possible.

At the beginning of the sentence, the pleonastic subject can never be omitted. However, the pleonastic subject can often be omitted after an adverb or prepositional phrase. The deletion of the pleonastic subject creates a less formal structure and is particularly common in conversation.

Rules for English Aspiration

English has aspirated plosives. This is also the case in German, but Dutch is a Germanic language which lacks aspirated plosives. Plosives are aspirated when they occur before a stressed vowel, but usually not aspirated after /s/. In some cases, however, this rule does not apply.

The word distant has an unaspirated plosive. The word consists of two syllables, di.stant. The plosive occurs before an unstressed vowel and after the alveolar fricative /s/. However, in the case of destroy, the plosive occurs before a stressed vowel but aspiration does not apply because it follows the alveolar fricative. Aspiration occurs in tone but not in stone. It also occurs in port but not in sport.

In the word distrust, the plosive is aspirated. The reason is that the morphemes dis and trust form the syllable boundary. The aspirated plosive of trust is preserved in the word distrust. The morpheme boundary thus preserves aspiration.

Normally English plosives are not aspirated when they follow the voiceless alveolar fricative. However, words such as distrust do not follow this rule because they consist of morphemes which syllabify the world differently. In the word distant, the plosive is the second segment of the second syllable. In distrust, however, it is the first plosive of the second syllable.