Spanish Ordinal Numbers

Spanish ordinal numbers can differ significantly from their cardinal counterparts. However, they are used less than in English. They are often used for the numbers ten and under. For larger numbers, it is common to use the cardinal number, especially in speech.

The phrase the twentieth century is el siglo veinte in Spanish. The cardinal number veinte (twenty) is used. To say the sixteenth floor, it is common to say el piso dieciseis. In this case the cardinal number dieciseis (sixteen) is used.

Here is a list of Spanish ordinal numbers:

tenth décimo

twentieth vigésimo

thirthieth trigésimo

fortieth cuadragésimo

fiftieth quincuagésimo

sixtieth sexagésimo

seventieth septuagésimo

eightieth octogésimo

ninetieth nonagésimo

one hundredth centésimo

two hundredth ducentésimo

three hundredth tricentésimo

four hundredth cuadringentésimo

five hundredth quingentésimo

six hundredth sexcentésimo

seven hundredth septingentésimo

eight hundredth octingentésimo

nine hundredth noningentésimo

one thousandth milésimo

In the list of cardinal numbers, the stress is always antepenultimate. The cardinal numbers have more syllables than they do in English. A few such as the cardinal numbers for four hundredth and seven hundredth have six syllables. The large number of syllables may be one reason that the cardinal numbers are used less extensively in Spanish than in English.

Ukrainian Palatalization Rule

Ukrainian has a contrast between palatal and non-palatal consonants. The palatal consonant is often called soft, and the non-palatal consonant is often called hard. Russian also has hard and soft consonants. In both languages, palatalized consonants can occur in the syllable onset and coda. However, the rules for palatalization are not identical.

The high front vowel [i] always triggers palatalization in Russian. With the exception of three consonants which are never palatalized, all Russian consonants which precede the high front vowel are palatalized. This is not the case in Ukrainian.

In Ukrainian seven consonants are palatalized before [i]. They are [d], [z], [l], [n], [s], [t] and [ts]. The seven consonants are three plosives, two fricatives, one liquid and one affricate. However, in Russian many consonants are palatalized before [i]. They include [b], [p], [m], [f], [v] and [r].

To illustrate the difference, we can compare the Russian and Ukrainian pronunciations of the word for tomato. They are помидор (pomidor) in Russian and помiдор (pomidor) in Ukrainian. The nasal [m] is palatalized in Russian but not in Ukrainian. 

Russian and Ukrainian both have consonant pairs with and without palatalization. In Russian most consonants become palatalized when they precede the high front vowel. However, this is not the case in Ukrainian. The Ukrainian palatalization rule limits palatalization to seven alveolar consonants.

Organs of the Human Body

The human body consists of 78 organs. Of these 78 organs, five are vital organs. They are the brain, heart, lungs, liver and kidneys.

Many organs form part of organ systems. They work together to perform specific functions. The organ systems of the body include the nervous system, reproductive system, integumentary system, muscular system, endocrine system, immune system, digestive system and circulatory system.

The brain and the spinal cord form the core of the central nervous system. The nervous system helps the body to regulate every function.

The reproductive system is the only system which is different in men and women. In women, the reproductive system supports the growth of the fetus.

The integumentary system includes the skin, the largest organ in the human body. It helps to regulate body temperature and make vitamin D from sunlight.

The muscular system includes a vast network of muscles. They can be divided into voluntary and involuntary muscles. Voluntary muscles are muscles that individuals can move when they wish.

The endocrine system is a network of glands throughout the body. They release hormones which help to regular the function of organs in the body.

The immune system helps the body to prevent infections and to fight them when they occur. Many organs play a role in the immune system. The skin helps to prevent dangerous microorganisms from entering the body.

The digestive system is the group of organs which digest food. These organs also release substances to aid digestion and absorption. The mouth, liver and stomach form part of the digestive system.

The circulatory system includes blood vessels. Their role is to circulate blood throughout the body.

The human body is composed of many organs. They work together in organ systems which perform various functions. The study of the structures of the human body is known as human anatomy.

Dialects of Brazilian Portuguese

Despite the size of Brazil, Brazilian Portuguese is relatively uniform. Brazilian Portuguese can be divided into six main dialects. They are the Northeastern, Northern, Central, Rio, Sao Paulo and Southern.

Many speakers of the northeast dialect do not palatalize the /d/ and /t/ in words such as dia (day) and tio (uncle). The pronunciation of the /d/ and /t/ is the same as in European Portuguese. Pretonic vowels are more open than in southern Brazil. For example, the word menino (boy) has an open vowel in the first vowel, but in the south it is closed.

In the northern dialect, the dental consonants /d/, /t/, /l/ and /n/ are palatalized before /i/. For example, the /n/ in bonito (nice) is palatalized. 

Many speakers of the central dialect have an alveolar approximant. It occurs in the syllable coda. For example, the word carta (letter) can be pronounced with the approximant. 

The Rio dialect is known for the use of the alveopalatal fricative in words such as três (three). This pronunciation is also common in European Portuguese. In most parts of Brazil, the /s/ in the syllable coda is always a dental or alveolar fricative. 

In the Sao Paulo dialect, the /d/ and /t/ are palatalized before /i/. This is also the case in many other parts of the country. In words such as carta (letter), many speakers have an alveolar tap or trill.

The southern dialect has an alveolar tap or trill in words such as carta (letter). Many speakers do not raise the word-final e or o in words such as leite (milk) and mundo (world). In most of Brazil, vowel raising of unstressed word-final vowels is common.

The dialects of Sao Paulo and Rio are probably the best known dialects of Brazilian Portuguese. However, other dialects also have many speakers. The Portuguese of the capital city, Brasilia, forms part of the Central dialect.

Circumflex in French

The circumflex is a diacritic used in French. It is often used in words that once had an s. Here is a list of ten French words which once had an s in French:

ancêtre (ancestor)

bête (beast)

conquête (conquest)

côte (coast)

coût (cost)

croûte (crust)

forêt (forest)

hôpital (hospital)

hôte (host)

île (island)

The French words from the list once had an s. It disappeared, but the s is retained in English. The French circumflex often indicates the loss of the historical s.

Final Vowel of Finnish Loanwords

Most Finnish words end with vowels. This is also the case with other languages such as Italian, Japanese and Spanish. In English, however, most words end with consonants. Many Finnish loanwords end with a word-final i. Here is a list of ten Finnish loanwords:

adressi (address)

aksentti (accent)

bussi (bus)

dokumentti (document)

hotelli (hotel)

jaguaari (jaguar)

majoneesi (mayonnaise)

parlamentti (parliament)

salaatti (salad)

seminaari (seminar)

The Finnish words are similar to those of English and many other languages. However, they are all pronounced with word-final consonants in English. In Finnish, they are pronounced with a word-final high front vowel.