Long skis glide over hardened icy snow,
Knees bent and arms stretched to gather speed,
He ignores every spectator below,
Focus on victory now his only creed.
In swift descent his blood begins to flow.
He appreciates his superior breed.
He keeps his arms and legs positioned low,
Anxious to protect his precarious lead.
Snow becomes air and arms turn into wings.
Every fleeting second looms through his fall.
His unrivalled height makes him king of kings.
After landing superbly he stands tall.
He anticipates more championship rings
This day ski jumping crowns him above all.
When I lived in Finland, I had the chance to see live ski jumping. It was an incredible experience which I'll never forget. Though I enjoy watching ski jumping on TV, it's much better in person. The experience inspired me to write this sonnet about ski jumping.
This sonnet starts with a description of the ski jumper starting his jump. He knows that he belongs to a special group of individuals who take part in this exciting sport. The snow below him disappears as he takes off. Every second is critical to his success. He completes the jump with a great landing and expects he will have continued success in the future.
The rhyme scheme of this sonnet is a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, c, d, c, d, c, d. The sonnet has a number of references to the ski jumper's jump and subsequent fall. They include "below", "descent", "fall", "king" and "height".
Saturday, July 11, 2009
Monday, June 29, 2009
Pawn Centres
Chess games can produce five different pawn centres. Pawn centres are characterized by the pawn structures of the d- and e- files. The five different pawn centres are closed, dynamic, mobile, fixed and open.
The closed pawn centre has four pawns on the d- and e-files, two for each side. Because there is little space in the centre, play develops on the wings. In the closed centre, knights are often very useful because they can manoeuvre to squares that other pieces cannot reach.
Another pawn centre with four pawns is the dynamic pawn centre. However, the dynamic pawn centre always develops into another kind of pawn centre. If the pawns become blocked and no exchanges are possible, the result is the closed pawn centre. If the pawns are all exchanged, the centre becomes an open centre.
The mobile pawn centre has three pawns on the board, two for one side and one for the other. As the name suggests, movement of the pawns through the centre is possible.
The fixed pawn centre has two pawns on the board, one for each side. The pawns cannot be exchanged, so movement through the centre is difficult. In a fixed pawn centre, players often try to create strongpoints on the board. For example, if white has a pawn on d4, the strongpoints are c5 and e5.
The open pawn centre has one or no pawns on the board. If there is a pawn on the board, it is a pawn which is not supported by another, so that passage through the centre is unimpeded. With open pawn centres, the king is relatively exposed, so players usually castle early to keep the king protected. Play is usually in the centre of the board.
It is good to be aware of the different pawn centres to determine the type of game which you are playing. If you know the type of pawn centre which your opponent prefers, you may wish to steer the game into a different pawn centre to gain an advantage.
The closed pawn centre has four pawns on the d- and e-files, two for each side. Because there is little space in the centre, play develops on the wings. In the closed centre, knights are often very useful because they can manoeuvre to squares that other pieces cannot reach.
Another pawn centre with four pawns is the dynamic pawn centre. However, the dynamic pawn centre always develops into another kind of pawn centre. If the pawns become blocked and no exchanges are possible, the result is the closed pawn centre. If the pawns are all exchanged, the centre becomes an open centre.
The mobile pawn centre has three pawns on the board, two for one side and one for the other. As the name suggests, movement of the pawns through the centre is possible.
The fixed pawn centre has two pawns on the board, one for each side. The pawns cannot be exchanged, so movement through the centre is difficult. In a fixed pawn centre, players often try to create strongpoints on the board. For example, if white has a pawn on d4, the strongpoints are c5 and e5.
The open pawn centre has one or no pawns on the board. If there is a pawn on the board, it is a pawn which is not supported by another, so that passage through the centre is unimpeded. With open pawn centres, the king is relatively exposed, so players usually castle early to keep the king protected. Play is usually in the centre of the board.
It is good to be aware of the different pawn centres to determine the type of game which you are playing. If you know the type of pawn centre which your opponent prefers, you may wish to steer the game into a different pawn centre to gain an advantage.
Saturday, May 9, 2009
Morphemes and Syllable Boundaries
Morphemes often provide valuable information with respect to the pronunciation of a word. They can also assist linguists with syllable division.
For example, the two English words "finger" and "singer" have different word-initial segments, but this is not the sole difference. The word "singer" consists of two morphemes, the verb "sing" and the agentive suffix -er. The verb "sing" ends with a velar nasal which is also present in "singer". This word consists of five segments or four if one analyzes the -er suffix as a syllabic r or schwar (r-coloured vowel) in which case it has only four. Since no English syllable can begin with a velar nasal, it is clear that singer can be divided as sing + er. The word, finger, however, is different. This word consists of a single morpheme. The "n" is a velar nasal but it is followed by a voiced velar plosive. The word finger consists of six segments or five if one analyzes -er as a syllabic r or schwar (r-coloured vowel). It appears that the only reason "singer" does not have a velar nasal followed by a velar plosive is due to the lack of a velar plosive in the bound morpheme "sing".
In the Spanish word "monstruo" meaning monster, we see a sequence of four consonants in word-medial position. The "u" is pronouned as a "w", a labiovelar glide. Such a consonant sequence does not occur word-initially nor word-finally in Spanish words. Since the consonant sequence -ns does not occur word-finally and -str does not occur word-initially, it is unclear how to divide the two syllables. However, the -ns sequence does occur in proper nouns such as the last name "Sanz" (pronounced with a voiceless dental fricative or voiceless interdental fricative in Castilian Spanish), thus providing evidence for the syllable division mons + truo. A number of Spanish words begin with the consonant sequence tr- such as "tren" (train), "tratamiento" (treatment) and "trono" (throne).
When it is unclear how to syllabify a particular word, evidence from other words can be very useful. In the case of pronunciation, a language may favour a particular pronunciation to remain faithful to the pronunciation of a particular morpheme prior to affixation.
For example, the two English words "finger" and "singer" have different word-initial segments, but this is not the sole difference. The word "singer" consists of two morphemes, the verb "sing" and the agentive suffix -er. The verb "sing" ends with a velar nasal which is also present in "singer". This word consists of five segments or four if one analyzes the -er suffix as a syllabic r or schwar (r-coloured vowel) in which case it has only four. Since no English syllable can begin with a velar nasal, it is clear that singer can be divided as sing + er. The word, finger, however, is different. This word consists of a single morpheme. The "n" is a velar nasal but it is followed by a voiced velar plosive. The word finger consists of six segments or five if one analyzes -er as a syllabic r or schwar (r-coloured vowel). It appears that the only reason "singer" does not have a velar nasal followed by a velar plosive is due to the lack of a velar plosive in the bound morpheme "sing".
In the Spanish word "monstruo" meaning monster, we see a sequence of four consonants in word-medial position. The "u" is pronouned as a "w", a labiovelar glide. Such a consonant sequence does not occur word-initially nor word-finally in Spanish words. Since the consonant sequence -ns does not occur word-finally and -str does not occur word-initially, it is unclear how to divide the two syllables. However, the -ns sequence does occur in proper nouns such as the last name "Sanz" (pronounced with a voiceless dental fricative or voiceless interdental fricative in Castilian Spanish), thus providing evidence for the syllable division mons + truo. A number of Spanish words begin with the consonant sequence tr- such as "tren" (train), "tratamiento" (treatment) and "trono" (throne).
When it is unclear how to syllabify a particular word, evidence from other words can be very useful. In the case of pronunciation, a language may favour a particular pronunciation to remain faithful to the pronunciation of a particular morpheme prior to affixation.
Sunday, April 5, 2009
Opera Houses
Throughout the centuries, many beautiful and famous opera houses have been built. Not surprisingly, many of them are found in Europe, the birthplace of opera.
The Budapest Opera House is built in a renaissance style. London's Royal Opera House is in the Coventry Garden District and is unquestionably one of the most famous opera houses in the world. The Teatro Real in Madrid is a historical building with outstanding acoustics. The Teatro alla Scala, also known as the Milan Opera House, is very famous. It is possibly the most famous opera house in the world.
Other European opera houses which deserve mention are the Royal Swedish Opera in Stockholm, built in a neoclassical style, the Vienna Opera House, one of the foremost opera houses in the world, the Teatro San Carlo of Naples, a city well-known for opera, the Bavarian State Opera House in Munich, the National Theatre in Prague and the Paris Opera House, the setting for the famous musical "The Phantom of the Opera". In Russia there is the beautiful Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg and the elegant Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, both world-renowned opera houses.
Outside of Europe, the Metropolitan Opera in New York featuring several performances a year, the Sydney Opera House with its unique design and the historical Teatro Colon of Buenos Aires deserve mention.
Most of the famous opera houses in the world are to be found in Europe, but famous ones can also be found in other parts of the world. One day I hope I can see an opera in a famous opera house such as the Teatro alla Scala, Paris Opera House and Sydney Opera House. That would be so memorable.
The Budapest Opera House is built in a renaissance style. London's Royal Opera House is in the Coventry Garden District and is unquestionably one of the most famous opera houses in the world. The Teatro Real in Madrid is a historical building with outstanding acoustics. The Teatro alla Scala, also known as the Milan Opera House, is very famous. It is possibly the most famous opera house in the world.
Other European opera houses which deserve mention are the Royal Swedish Opera in Stockholm, built in a neoclassical style, the Vienna Opera House, one of the foremost opera houses in the world, the Teatro San Carlo of Naples, a city well-known for opera, the Bavarian State Opera House in Munich, the National Theatre in Prague and the Paris Opera House, the setting for the famous musical "The Phantom of the Opera". In Russia there is the beautiful Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg and the elegant Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, both world-renowned opera houses.
Outside of Europe, the Metropolitan Opera in New York featuring several performances a year, the Sydney Opera House with its unique design and the historical Teatro Colon of Buenos Aires deserve mention.
Most of the famous opera houses in the world are to be found in Europe, but famous ones can also be found in other parts of the world. One day I hope I can see an opera in a famous opera house such as the Teatro alla Scala, Paris Opera House and Sydney Opera House. That would be so memorable.
Noah's Ark Trap
One of the most common traps in chess is known as the Noah's Ark Trap. It often occurs in the opening, particularly with the opening known as the Ruy Lopez or Spanish Game. In this trap, white's light-squared bishop is trapped on b3 by black's pawns. Here is an example of how the Noah's Ark Trap can result:
1. e4 e5
2. Nf3 Nc6
3. Bb5 a6
White's third move is the final move of the opening known as the Ruy Lopez or Spanish Game. Black's response is the most common response in this opening. It's called "putting the question to the bishop" because white must decide whether to capture the knight with his bishop (exchange variation of the Ruy Lopez) or keep his bishop by moving it to a4.
4. Ba4 Nf6
5. 0-0 d6
Though black's knight attacks white's pawn, he prefers to develop by castling rather than defend his pawn. Black decides not to take the pawn but move the queen pawn to open a diagonal for his light-squared bishop.
6. d4 b5
7. Bb3 Nxd4
8. Nxd4 exd
Here white is down a pawn but must not take black's pawn with his queen. To do so is to fall victim to the Noah's Ark Trap.
9. Qxd4 c5
10. Qd1 c4
White's bishop is now trapped on b3. After move 8, white is down a pawn but has a powerful bishop on b3 and a castled king. If white wishes to avoid the loss of a pawn at this stage of the game, one option is to capture black's knight with the bishop on move 4 and the other is to play d3 on move 6 rather than d4.
The Noah's Ark Trap is a trap that has been used many times in chess against an unsuspecting opponent. Though it often occurs in the opening of the Ruy Lopez, it can occur at any stage of a game and with many other openings as well. White needs to be careful to make sure that the light-squared bishop doesn't get trapped on b3 by black's pawns.
1. e4 e5
2. Nf3 Nc6
3. Bb5 a6
White's third move is the final move of the opening known as the Ruy Lopez or Spanish Game. Black's response is the most common response in this opening. It's called "putting the question to the bishop" because white must decide whether to capture the knight with his bishop (exchange variation of the Ruy Lopez) or keep his bishop by moving it to a4.
4. Ba4 Nf6
5. 0-0 d6
Though black's knight attacks white's pawn, he prefers to develop by castling rather than defend his pawn. Black decides not to take the pawn but move the queen pawn to open a diagonal for his light-squared bishop.
6. d4 b5
7. Bb3 Nxd4
8. Nxd4 exd
Here white is down a pawn but must not take black's pawn with his queen. To do so is to fall victim to the Noah's Ark Trap.
9. Qxd4 c5
10. Qd1 c4
White's bishop is now trapped on b3. After move 8, white is down a pawn but has a powerful bishop on b3 and a castled king. If white wishes to avoid the loss of a pawn at this stage of the game, one option is to capture black's knight with the bishop on move 4 and the other is to play d3 on move 6 rather than d4.
The Noah's Ark Trap is a trap that has been used many times in chess against an unsuspecting opponent. Though it often occurs in the opening of the Ruy Lopez, it can occur at any stage of a game and with many other openings as well. White needs to be careful to make sure that the light-squared bishop doesn't get trapped on b3 by black's pawns.
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
English Stress Shift
Though English stress is normally on the first syllable of the word, it can in fact appear on any syllable. It is rather difficult to predict as is also the case in languages such as Russian, German and Portuguese. Sometimes it appears on the final syllable as in "technique", "expertise", "remark" and "unique". In other instances the stress is penultimate as in "transportation", "banana", "tomato" and "establish". Antepenultimate stress occurs in "undoubtedly", "coordinate", "regrettable" and "informative". English stress is thus largely unpredictable.
In many cases, though, affixation produces what can be termed English stress shift. Many roots have a shift in stress when a suffix is attached to them. Though the stress shifts to the following syllable, the position of the stressed syllable in relation to the final syllable remains the same.
To illustrate, the word "economy" consists of four syllables in which the third to last syllable is stressed. The third to last syllable is commonly referred to as the antepenultimate syllable. In the adjective "economical" five syllables are present. Now it is the third syllable which is stressed and not the second as in "economy". However, in both "economy" and "economical", it is the antepenultimate syllable which is stressed.
This same pattern is present in the following words:
statistics, statistician
politics, political
technology, technological
biology, biological
geography, geographical
mathematics, mathematician
comedy, comedian
psychology, psychological
philosophy, philosophical
In each of the examples, the adjective consists of an additional syllable because of the addition of the suffix. The result is that the stress shifts to the following syllable. However, in relation to the final syllable of the word, the stress pattern remains the same. It is antepenultimate. This rule does not work in all cases, however. For example, the words "behaviour" and "behavioural" do not follow this pattern. However, the stress shift can be observed in many instances.
Stress in English can undoubtedly be difficult to predict as is the case in other languages. Nevertheless, it is true that most English words are stressed on the first syllable and that the English stress shift occurs with a large number of words. It is often the case that the derivation of an adjective from a root by suffixation is subject to the stress shift in which the stress in the adjective shifts to the following syllable but as in the root remains antepenultimate.
In many cases, though, affixation produces what can be termed English stress shift. Many roots have a shift in stress when a suffix is attached to them. Though the stress shifts to the following syllable, the position of the stressed syllable in relation to the final syllable remains the same.
To illustrate, the word "economy" consists of four syllables in which the third to last syllable is stressed. The third to last syllable is commonly referred to as the antepenultimate syllable. In the adjective "economical" five syllables are present. Now it is the third syllable which is stressed and not the second as in "economy". However, in both "economy" and "economical", it is the antepenultimate syllable which is stressed.
This same pattern is present in the following words:
statistics, statistician
politics, political
technology, technological
biology, biological
geography, geographical
mathematics, mathematician
comedy, comedian
psychology, psychological
philosophy, philosophical
In each of the examples, the adjective consists of an additional syllable because of the addition of the suffix. The result is that the stress shifts to the following syllable. However, in relation to the final syllable of the word, the stress pattern remains the same. It is antepenultimate. This rule does not work in all cases, however. For example, the words "behaviour" and "behavioural" do not follow this pattern. However, the stress shift can be observed in many instances.
Stress in English can undoubtedly be difficult to predict as is the case in other languages. Nevertheless, it is true that most English words are stressed on the first syllable and that the English stress shift occurs with a large number of words. It is often the case that the derivation of an adjective from a root by suffixation is subject to the stress shift in which the stress in the adjective shifts to the following syllable but as in the root remains antepenultimate.
Tuesday, February 17, 2009
Sound Correspondences of Spanish and Portuguese
Spanish and Portuguese share a number of sound correspondences. They illustrate the similarity of the two languages.
A "j" (pharyngeal, velar or glottal fricative depending on dialect) in Spanish often corresponds to an lh (palatal lateral) in Portuguese. I illustrate with these examples:
ajo, alho (garlic)
hijo, filho (son)
ojo, olho (eye)
mojado, molhado (wet)
An "h" in Spanish (no phonetic value) often corresponds to an "f" in Portuguese. Here are a few examples:
hacer, fazer (to do, to make)
hijo, filho (son)
haba, fava (bean)
hablar, falar (to speak)
An "l" in Spanish often corresponds to an "r" in Portuguese. Here are a few examples:
plato, prato (plate)
blanco, branco (white)
placer, prazer (pleasure)
obligado, obrigado (obliged)
The Spanish diphthong "ie" is often the vowel "e" in Portuguese. This occurs with stressed vowels. Here are examples:
tierra, terra (earth)
hierro, ferro (iron)
siete, sete (seven)
pierna, perna (leg)
A Spanish "ll" (palatal approximant or palatal lateral) often corresponds to a "ch" (alveopalatal fricative) in Portuguese. Here are a few examples:
lluvia, chuva (rain)
llamar, chamar (to call)
lleno, cheio (full)
llorar, chorar (to cry)
The Spanish diphthong "ue" is often an "o" in Portuguese. This typically occurs with stressed vowels. Here are examples to illustrate:
puerta, porta (door)
nueve, nove (nine)
nuevo, novo (new)
suerte, sorte (luck)
It is clear that Spanish and Portuguese are related languages with many sound correspondences. Knowledge of these sound correspondences not only makes it easier to learn the vocabulary of the two languages but also often makes it possible to predict a word in one language. In other words, if one knows a particular word in Spanish, it is often possible to guess the word in Portuguese and vice-versa.
A "j" (pharyngeal, velar or glottal fricative depending on dialect) in Spanish often corresponds to an lh (palatal lateral) in Portuguese. I illustrate with these examples:
ajo, alho (garlic)
hijo, filho (son)
ojo, olho (eye)
mojado, molhado (wet)
An "h" in Spanish (no phonetic value) often corresponds to an "f" in Portuguese. Here are a few examples:
hacer, fazer (to do, to make)
hijo, filho (son)
haba, fava (bean)
hablar, falar (to speak)
An "l" in Spanish often corresponds to an "r" in Portuguese. Here are a few examples:
plato, prato (plate)
blanco, branco (white)
placer, prazer (pleasure)
obligado, obrigado (obliged)
The Spanish diphthong "ie" is often the vowel "e" in Portuguese. This occurs with stressed vowels. Here are examples:
tierra, terra (earth)
hierro, ferro (iron)
siete, sete (seven)
pierna, perna (leg)
A Spanish "ll" (palatal approximant or palatal lateral) often corresponds to a "ch" (alveopalatal fricative) in Portuguese. Here are a few examples:
lluvia, chuva (rain)
llamar, chamar (to call)
lleno, cheio (full)
llorar, chorar (to cry)
The Spanish diphthong "ue" is often an "o" in Portuguese. This typically occurs with stressed vowels. Here are examples to illustrate:
puerta, porta (door)
nueve, nove (nine)
nuevo, novo (new)
suerte, sorte (luck)
It is clear that Spanish and Portuguese are related languages with many sound correspondences. Knowledge of these sound correspondences not only makes it easier to learn the vocabulary of the two languages but also often makes it possible to predict a word in one language. In other words, if one knows a particular word in Spanish, it is often possible to guess the word in Portuguese and vice-versa.
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